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AS A TRIBUTE OF PROFESSIONAL RESPECT
SOUND 8CH0LAESH1P AND TINWEAEIED LABOES LX THE OATJSB OF EDTJCATION
NO LESS THAN AS A MEIIOEIAI,
OF
PRIVATE ESTEEM AND FRIENDSHIT,
THIS VOLTTMK
BY
THE AXJTHOB,
PREFACE.
The favor with which the,,public have kindly received the Au-thor's
" First Lessons in Composition ", and the frequent calls made
by Colleges and higher Academies for a more advanced work
on the same plan, with which to follow it, have led to the prepara-tion
of the present volume. The elementary book to which refer-ence
has just been made, was intended to initiate the beginner by
easy steps into the art of composition j the work now offered to
the public has a wider scope, embracing a variety of subjects worthy
of the attention of advanced piipUs, and presenting much important
matter heretofore scattered through a number of different text-books.
Claiming to give a comprehensive and practical view of our
language ia all its relations, this " Advanced Course " views it as a
whole, no less than with reference to the individual words composing
it ; shows how it compares with other tongues, modern and ancient
;
points out its beauties ; indicates how they may best be made avail-able
; and, in a word, teaches the pupil the most philosophical
method of digesting and arranging his thoughts, as well as the most
correct and effective mode of expressing them.
The volume commences with a condensed history of our tongue,
prefaced by a consideration of the origin of language in general,
both spoken and written. Attention is first paid to the successive
steps, by which, with Divine aid, man was enabled to develop a sys-tem
of spoken language, to frame that elaborate and wonderful
fabric without which civilization would be blotted from the globe.
The invention of letters and the various systems of writing form
the next subjects in order. The primitive language of Britain is
then traced through successive modifications, produced by as
many political changes, until at last the German invaders banished
6 PREFACE.
it to wilds and fastnesses, and introduced the sturdy mother-tonguQ
of our own English. The history of the latter is then traced, from
the days of Hengist and Horsa, through lines of Saxon kings, Scan-^
dinavian usurpers, and Norman conquerors ; until, modified, enriched,
and improved, by the foreign elements with which it was brought
in contact, it became a new tongue, that was soon embodied by poets
in undying verse, and was destined to give birth to the noblest and
most valuable literature of modem times.
The formation of the English language having been thus con-sidered,
its words are treated of, both with reference to their origin
and the parts they respectively perform in a sentence. The memory
of the pupil being then refreshed by a condensed review of the
leading topics of grammar, a chapter on false syntax, and an ex-haustive
view of the principles relating to the use of Capitals, the
too generally neglected subject of Punctuation is next taken up.
As this art, when considered at all in educational text-books, is
treated only in the most cursory manner, it was regarded as a
desideratum to present in this volume a complete and thorough
system, which should cover exceptions as well as rules, and provide
for every possible case, however rare or intricate. Such a system,
it is claimed, is here set forth.
Khetoric proper constitutes the next division of the work. Here,
by means of strict conciseness, space has been found to treat with
due attention and minuteness of every important subject connected
with the art. The student is led to consider successively Taste, its
elements, characteristics, and standard ; the pleasures of the imagi-nation
; its sources,—the novel, the wonderful, the picturesque, the
sublime, and the beautiful ; sublimity and beauty of writing ; wit,
humor, and ridicule ; figures their use and abuse ; style, its varie-ties
and essential properties ; and criticism. A thorough prelimi-nary
course on these important subjects was thought necessary
before requiring the student to write original exercises.
Thus prepared, the pupil enters on the subject of prose compo-sition.
The process of Invention, which furnishes the thoughts to
be clothed in a dress of words, and which constitutes the most dif-ficult
if not the chief branch of the art, is first considered. The
young composer is shown how to analyze his subject, and to am-plify
the thoughts successively 'suggested into a well-connected
whole. The different parts of an exercise are taken up in turn j
t^arious forms and models of introductions are presented 5 descrip-
PREFACE. 7
tion, narration, argument, &c., are treated, and the peculiarities of
each pointed out, as well as the styles which they respectively re-quire.
The varieties of prose composition follow ; and, with care-fully
selected models before him, the student is required to prepare
original compositions on the same plan,—such previous instruction
having been given, and such aids being presented, that the process
of composing, no longer a dull, routine, performance, becomes a
highly intelligent and improving mental discipline. Thus made
acquainted successively with Letters, Narratives, Fiction, Essays,
Argumentative Discourses, and Orations, and furnished with sub-jects
in each department and suggestions as to their proper treat-ment,
the student is next led to the consideration of Poetry, its
feet, measures, rhymes, pauses, and different varieties.
The subject last referred to is not treated with the view of mak-ing
poets. A claim to this high title must be founded on something
more than a mere ability to versify or rhyme correctly. But, while it
is admitted that no rules can make a poet of one whom nature has
not constituted such, it is sincerely believed that a knowledge of the
principles here set forth will have a tendency to produce more cor-rect
and better poetry, as it certainly will enable the reader to
have a higher appreciation of its merits. Not every one who goes
through a course of syntax can write good prose ; yet this does
not alter the fact that a thorough acquaintance with syntax is es-sential
to the good prose writer.
If it be asked, what constitute the distinguishing features and
advantages of the volume here presented to the public, the author
would reply : In the first place, clearness and simplicity. Though
the work was prepared for pupils of an advanced grade, and has
been written in a style adapted to their comprehension, yet it was
deemed of primary importance to set forth every point perspic-uously
and intelligibly. Secondly, it embraces in small compass a
variety of important subjects, which have a common connection,
and mutually illustrate each other ; but which the pupil has here-tofore
been obliged to leave unlearned, or to search for among a
number of different volumes. In the third place, it is eminently
practical. Exercises have been introduced throughout the work,
wherever admissible, which will ensure that what has been learned
IS properly understood, and impressed on the mind.
It remains for the author to acknowledge his obligation to the
carious sources from which he has received assistance in the prepa-
b PREFACE.
» ation of the present work. His object throughout having been to
produce a useful book, he did not feel at liberty to reject aught that
could be turned to practical use. He has, therefore, as far as was
consistent with his own plan, carefully gleaned whatever he has
found of value in the works of those who have preceded him. Par-ticular
reference is here made to the text-books which for years
have been regarded as standards on the subjects of which they re-spectively
treat ; to Blair's Lectures, Burke on the Sublime and
Beautiful, Alison's Essay on Taste, and other books of a similar
stamp, from which ideas, and occasionally language, have been freely
drawn. Nor have more modern English publications been over-looked.
In a word, it is believed that, while originality of plan and
execution have been strictly maintained, whatever may have been
elsewhere contributed to the elucidation of the subject, will not be
wanting here : at the same time it has been the author's aim, in
drawing from others, to improve upon their language, to adapt
their style to the comprehension of all, and to avoid the errors of
fact, grammar, or rhetoric, into which they may have fallen.
The author is aware that an objection to the use of a text-book
on Composition exists in the minds of some, who prefer that their
pupils should prepare written exercises from given subjects without
aid or instruction of any kind. Of such he would respectfully ask
a careful consideration of the question whether something may not
be gained by pursuing a regular, consistent, plan. As, in the vari-ous
departments of industry, much more can be accomplished, in a
limited time and with a given amount of labor, by those who work
according to a definite enlightened system, than by men of equal
energy, who, with an end alone in view, without regard to a choice
of means, go blindly to their task, directed by no higher principle
than chance; so, it is claimed, an equal advantage is gained by
those students of composition who pursue a well-digested plan, ma-tured
by experience, and elaborated by careful thought. Those
who have tried both courses must decide whether this position is
not as consonant with fact, as it certainly is with reason.
Repeating his thanks for the patronage extended to the little
volume which preceded this, the author can only express the hope
that the work now sent forth may meet with an equally kind
reception.
Nbw York, Sept. 11, 1854.
CONTENTS
PART I.
mSTORT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAaB.
L Media of Comnmnication, . e 13
IL Origin of Spoken Language, , - 17
lIL Written Language, r . 20
lY. Alphabetic "Writing, ... 24
V. Formation of Language, 29
VL Origin of the English Language, , S4
YIL Origin of the English Language (cordinuecl), .41
Vm. Oigin of the English Language (continued), 47
IX. Analysis of the English Language, 52
X. Characteristics of the English Language, , , 57
XL Parts of Speech, 61
XII. Sentences, . . 67
XIIL Capital Letters, 74
Xiy, Exercise on Capitals, . 79
PAET II.
* PUNCTUATION.
iV. Principles of the Art, 81
XVI. The Period, . .86
XVIL The Interrogation-point—The Exclamation-point, . , . • 91
tYIII. The Colon, . . * . 97
SIX. The Semicolon, 100
I*
10 CONTENTS.
LESSON PMia
XX The Comma, , , , . , . 104
XXL The Comma (continued), . . ,,.... 108
XXII. The Comma {continued), 113
XXIIL The Comma {contkiued), 118
XXIV. The Comma {continued), 123
XXV. The Comma {continued), . 128
XXVL The Dash, .181
XXVII. Parentheses.—Brackets, 136
XXVIII. Apostrophe.—Hyphen.—Quotation-points, 141
XXIX. Exercise on the Apostrophe, the Hyphen, and Quotation-pointa, * 14T
XXX. Other Marks used in Writing and Printing, 149
XXXI. Grammatical Inaccuracies, . , 155
XXXII. Exercise in False Syntax, 160
PAET III.
EHETOKIO.
XXXIII. Province and Objects of Ehetoric, . . . . . . .168
XXXIV. Taste.—Its Universality and Cultivation, 169
XXXV. Elements and Characteristics of Taste, 173
XXXVI. Standard of Taste, 178
XXXVII. Pleasures of the Imagination, 183
gXXVIII. Sources of the Pleasures of the Imagination.—The Novel—The Won-derfuL—
The Picturesque 188
XXXIX. The Sublime, 194
XL. The Sublime in Writing, 201
XLI. The Sublime in Writing {continued), 206
XLIL The Sublime in Writing {continued), 211
XLIII. The Beautiful, 214
XLIV. Gracefulness,—The Beautiful in the Human Countenance, in Sound,
and in Writing, . ,....'.. 221
XLV. Wit, 225
XLVI. Humor and Eidicule, .231
XLVII. Figures of Orthography, Etymology, and Syntax, . . . .235
XLVIIL Figurative Language, 239
XLIX. Exercises on Figurative Language, 245
L> Figures of Ehetoric, 246
LI. Exercise on Figures, • . 253
LII. Eules for the Use of Ehetorical Figures, . ^ 254
LIII. Exercise on Figures, 260
LIV. Style and its Varieties, ' 262
CONTENTS. 11
ussaoN PACK
LV. Exercise on the Yarieties of Style, ... ... 267
LVI. Essential Properties of Style.—Purity.—Propriety, , 270
LVIL Exercise on Purity and Propriety, 277
LVni. Precision, : . . 279
LIX. Clearness, or Perspicuity, 284
LX. Exercise on Clearness, 291
LXI. Strength, 293
LXII. Harmony, . 299
LXIIL Exercise on Harmony, SOS
LXIV. Unity, 809
LXY. The Forming of Style, 313
LXVL Criticism, ,818
PART IV.
PROSE COMPOSITION.
LXVII. Invention.—Analysis of Subjects, 825
LXVIII. Amplification, 829
LXIX. Revision and Correction of Compositions, 884
LXX. Exercise in Amplification, 837
LXXI. Exercise in Amplification, , 387
LXXIL Exercise on Plain and Figuratisi^e Language, . . , 337
LXXIII, Exercise in Extended Simile, , . 338
LXXIV. Exercise in Extended Simile, . 838
LXXV. Exercise in Metaphorical Language, . 838
LXXYI. Exercise in Allegory, 839
LXXVII. Exercise in Hyperbole, ,340
LXXYUI. Exercises in Yision and Apostrophe, 841
LXXIX. Exercise in Personification, . 841
LXXX, Exercises in Climax and Antithesis, 342
LXXXI. Parallels, 842
LXXXII. Exercise in Parallels, 343
LXXXIII. Exercise in Parallels, . 844
LXXXIY. Exercise in Defining Synonymes, . 344
LXXXY. Exercise in Defining Synonymes, , 844
LXXXYI. Exercise in Paraphrasing, . 844
LXXXYII. Exercise in Paraphrasing, 345
LXXXYIII. Exercise in Abridging, .846
LXXXIX. Exercise in Abridging, 847
XC. Exercise in Abridging, 847
XCL Exercise in Criticism, ....... . , 347
12 CONTENTS.
XCII. Exercise in Criticism, . . 847
XCIIL Description of Material Objects, . . . , . , . ,348
XCIY. Description of Natural Scenery, and Persons, . ... 860
XCV. Narration.—Argument—Exposition.—Speculation, .... 858
XCVL Letters 855
XCYIL Letters (continued), . ^ 865
XCYIIL Narratives, ; 867
XCIX Exercise in Biography, ,872
C. Fiction, .874
CL Essays, . , .879
CIL Exercises in Essay-Writing, .... , . 885
CIIL Tliesesj or Argamentative Discourses, , • ... 385
CIV. Orations.—Sermon-Writing, 992
PAET V.
POETICAL COMPOSITION.
CV. Yerse.—Quantity.—Feet—Metres, 400
CYI. Stanzas.—Sonnets.—Heroic Verse.—Blank Verse, . ' » . 406
CVIL Ehymes.—Pauses, . 413
CrniL Varieties of Poetry, .418
Specimen Proof-Sheet, =. 424
Explanation of Marks used on the Specimen Proof-Sheet, ... 426
list of Subjects, . ... . . 427
Table of Abbreyiations, . . .485
Index. . . ' . . ^1
ADVANCED COURSE
OF
COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC.
PAET L
ilSTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
LESSON I.
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION,
§ 1. Man is distinguislied from the brute creation by the
possession of reason. Brutes are governed by instinct ; man,
by his reasoning faculties. The senses of both are the same^
and on these senses material objects produce similar impres*
sions. But from these impressions brutes cannot reason anj
further than their natural instincts enable them, and their ne-cessities
require. Man, on the other hand, being possessed of
intellectual faculties, is capable of drawing inferences; and
thus from the impressions made on his senses by a single ex-ternal
object, receives many different ideas, which, producing
others in their turn, may be multiplied to infinity,
§ 1. How is man distinguished from the brute creation ? By what are brutea
governed ? By what, man ? How do the senses of men and brutes, and the impres-
Bions produced upon them, dififer ? How, then, do men receiYe more ideas from these
impressions than brutes?
14 MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION.
§ 2. Men, being endowed with social dispositions, natural-ly
desire to interchange the ideas received in the manner
above described. Brutes, also, particularly those of grega-rious
habits, are at times actuated by a similar impulse to
make known their feelings to each other. Now in both these
cases some medium of communication is necessary ; and we
find that the ingenuity of man has devised four means more or
less adapted to the purpose, the first two cf which the instinct
of the lower orders of creation has led them also to employ.
These are as follows :
—
I. Gestures. By these are meant the movements of the
body or its members. In the case of brutes, they are often
so expressive as to leave no doubt as to the predominant emo-tion.
Thus, in the billing of doves we see love exemplified
;
in the lion lashing his sides with his tail, and the cat raising
her back at the sight of an enemy, we have unmistakable evi-dences
of anger ; and in the horse depressing his ears back-wards,
of fear. Man, having generally other and better means
of communication, seldom uses gestures alone, though he often
employs them to illustrate and enforce what he says. When
other means, however, are wanting, he is able with their aid
alone to express his sentiments ; as in the case of the sick who
have lost the power of speech, or of one attempting to make
himself understood by those with whose language he is unac-quainted.
It is surprising, indeed, to see how perfectly per-sons
practised in the use of gestures can communicate even
complicated trains of thDught and long series of facts. Good
pantomimists will make the plot of a theatrical piece just as
intelligible to an audience as if it were developed by dialogue.
§ 2, What desire results from man's social disposition ? Is this desire confined to
the human race ? How many means of communication has man devised ? How many
and which are employed by brutes also ?
What is the first medium of communication ? What is meant by gestures ? Giv«
instances of the use of gestures by brutes, and mention the emotions they indicate.
For what purpose does man generally use gestures ? Do they ever serve alone to ex^
press his sentiments? Give instances. What may be communicated by gestures?
Give an instance. What is said of the action of the Greeks and Eomans ? How
fer was it carried on the stage? What point was debated by Cicero and Kosciuaf
MEDIA OP COMMUNICATION. 15
This fact was known and appreciated by the ancient Greeks
and Romans, whose action was much more vehement than we
are accustomed to see at the present day. On the stage this
was carried so far that two actors were at times brought on to
play the same part ; the office of one being to pronounce the
words, and that of the other to accompany them with appro-priate
gestures, a single performer being unable to attend to
both. Cicero informs us that it was a matter of dispute be-tween
the actor Roscius and himself whether the former could
express a sentiment in a greater variety of ways by significant
gestures, or the latter by the use of different phrases. He
also elsewhere tells us that this same Roscius had gained great
love from every one by the mere movements of his person.*
During the reign of Augustus both tragedies and comedies
were acted by pantomime alone. It was perfectly understood
by the people, who wept, and laughed, and were excited in
every way as much as if words had been employed. It seems,
indeed, to have worked upon their sympathies more powerful-ly
than words ; for it became'necessary, at a subsequent period,
to enact a law restraining members of the senate from study-ing
the art of pantomime, a practice to which it seems they
had resorted in order to give more effect to their speeches
before that body.
When, however, the Roman Empire yielded to the arms
of the Northern barbarians, and, as a consequence, great
numbers of the IS,tter spread over it in every direction, their
cold and phlegmatic manners wrought a material change as re-
* " Ergo Hie corporis motu tantum amorem sibi concilidrat a nobis
Mnnibus."
—
Peg Auchia Poeta, VIII.
What does Cicero tell us with respect to this actor ? In the reign of Augustus, how
were both tragedies and comedies represented ? How did some of the senators seek to
giie effect to their speeches ? What law was passed on the subject ? What effect did
the conquest of the Eoman Empire by Northern barbarians have on the gestures and
tones of the people ? How do the tones of the people of Southern Europe now com-pare
with those of the North ? Of what nations, in particular, is this ti-ue ?
16 MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION.
gards tlie gestures, no less than the tones and accents, of the
people. The mode of expression gradually grew more sub-dued,
and the accompanying action less violent, in proportion
as the new influences prevailed. Conversation became more
languid ; and public speaking was no longer indebted for its
effect to the art of the pantomimist. So great was the change
in these respects that the allusions of classical authors to the
oratory of their day were hardly intelligible. Notwithstand
ing these modifications, however, the people of Southern Eu-rope,
being warmer and more passionate by nature, are, at
the present day, much more animated in their tones and more
addicted to gesticulation than the inhabitants of the North.
This is particularly true of the French and Italians.
II. Inarticulate Sounds^ or cries used by man, particu-larly
during infancy, and by all other animals, to express
strong and sudden emotions, such as fear, love, sorrow,
and the like. In the earlier periods of man's history,
before a perfect system of language was developed, it is
probable that these natural interjections were used more
frequently than at present. Grammarians consider them
the earliest elements of speech. Among these inarticulate
sounds may be classed sighing, groaning, laughing, and
screaming, each of which is a key to the prevailing senti-ment
of the mind.
III. Spoken Language^ or an assemblage of articulate
sounds, which are individually the type of «ertain ideas, and
by a combination of which thoughts may be expressed. This
means of communication, as well as that which follows, is
employed by man alone.
IV. Written Language. By this is meant a combmation
of arbitrary characters, which convey to the mind the ideas
they represent through the medium of the eye.
What is the second medium of communication ? WTiat is meant by Inarticulata
Bounds? When were they most frequently used? How do grammarians regard
them ? What may be clussed among these Inarticulate Sounds ?
What is the third medium of communication? What is Spoken Language ? By
whom is it employed ?
ORIGIN OP SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 17
It will be seen that, as the ideas generated by man's refleo<
tive faculties infinitely outnumber the emotions of brutes, so
his means of communication are at once more numerous and
precise.
Gestures and inarticulate sounds our subject does not
lead us to consider any further ; of language, spoken and
written, we shall now proceed to treat.
LESSON II.
ORIGIN OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
§ 3. It is a question that has been much and ably dia*
cussed, whether spoken language is a divine or human institu-tion
: whether God gave it to man, as He gave the mental
faculties ; or man invented it for himself, stimulated by the
desire of communicating with his kind.
Those who think language is a human institution believe,
with the ancient philosophers and poets, that men were orig-inally
*' a dumb and low herd "
;
* that they were in all things
rude and savage, totally ignorant of the arts, unable to com-municate
with each other except in the imperfect manner of
beasts, and sensible of nothing save hunger, pain, and similar
emotions. Cicero, alluding to th§. human race in primeval ages,
says : " There was a time when men wandered every where
through the fields after the manner of beasts, and supported
life by eating the food of beasts." Diodorus, Lucretius,
* " Mutum et turpe pecus."
"What is the fourth medium of communication? What is meant bj Written
Language ?
How do man's ideas and means of communication compare with those of brutes ?
§ 8. What question has been much discussed ? What did the ancient philosophers
and poets regard as the original state of men ? What does Cicero say of the human
race in primeval times ? What ancient writers agree with him in this opinion ? What
18 ORIGIN OP SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
Horace, Pliny, Juvena], and other ancient writers, agree with
Cicero in this opinion, and hold that it was only after a long
and gradual improvement that men came to their present en=-
lightened state.
Lord Monboddo, who, in his work on " The Origin and
Progress of Language," labors to prove that man is but a
higher species of monkey, thinks that originally the human
race had only a few monosyllables, such as ha, he, hi, ho, by
which, like beasts, they expressed certain emotions.
Dr. Murray gives it as his opinion that all language orig-inated
in nine monosyllables, Ag, bag, dwag, gwag, lag, mag
NAG, RAG, SWAG. " Each of thcso," says Dr. M., " is a verb^
and indicates a species of action. Power, motion, force, ideas
united in every untutored mind, are implied in them all. They
were uttered at first, and probably for several generations, in
an insulated manner. The circumstances of the action were
communicated by gestures and the variable tones of the voice
;
but the actions themselves were expressed by their suitable
monosyllables."
Rousseau represents men as originally without language,
as unsocial by nature, and totally ignorant of the ties of
society. He does not, however, seek to explain how language
arose, being disheartened at the outset by the difficulty of de-ciding
whether language was more necessary for the institu-tion
of society, or society for the invention of language. Mau-pertius,
however, overcomes this difficulty by holding that
" language was formed by a session of learned societies assem-bled
for that purpose.
§ 4. But we must leave these absurd theories. Language
is, beyond doubt, a divine institution, invented by the Deity
and by Him made known to the human race. If language was
is the title of Lord Monboddo's work ? What does the author try to prove in it ? How
does he think that the human race originally expressed their emotions ? In what doea
Dr. Murray think that all language originated ? What part of speech, according to hini,
was each of these monosyllables ? What ideas does he think were implied in them ?
How does Eousseau represent the original race of men ? What difficulty disheartened
him at the outset of his enquiries ? What does Maupertius hold ?
ORieiN OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 19
devised by man, tlie invention could not have been at once
matured, but must have been the result of the necessities and
experience of successive generations. This, however, does not
accord with the facts of history ; for, however far we go back,
we cannot arrive at any period when even the most unenlight-ened
portions of mankind did not possess a system of language.
Scripture informs us that this means of communication was
employed by the first man and woman, as well as their imme-diate
descendants ; and we are hence forced to the conclusion
that it was the result of a direct revelation from on high.
Nevertheless, while the elements were thus imparted by
G-od, it is natural to suppose that much was left for man to
perfect ; and that, just as a mind was given to him which he
is required to cultivate and fit for the performance of its
duties by a long course of training, so the mere elements were
imparted, out of which he had to form by successive improve-ments
a perfect means of communication. " Three things,"
says Scaliger, " have contributed to enable man to perfect lan-guage,—
necessity, practice, and the desire to please. Neces-sity
produced a collection of words very imperfectly connected
;
practice, in multiplying them, gave them more expression
while it is to the desire of pleasing that we owe those agree-able
turns, those happy collocations of words, which impart to
phrases both elegance and grace."
"We are confirmed in this supposition by the fact that the
history of many languages shows a gradual progress from im-perfect
beginnings to a finished state, and that there is hardly
any cultivated tongue, which, if traced back to its earlier ages,
will not be found either defective in some of its parts or want-ing
in those characteristics which are a source of beauty and
§ 4. Leaving these theories, by -whom must -we conclude that language was invented ?
If it was devised by man, what would we find on looking back at the history of early
times ? Was this the case ? What does Scripture inform us with regard to the first
man and woman and their immediate descendants ? What follows from this ? Was
any thing left for man to perfect ? According to Scaliger, by what was man enabled to
perfect language ? What did necessity produce ? What did practice impart to them ?
What do we owe to the desire of pleasing ?
20 WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
strength. The language of a nation, traced through the suo
eessive eras of its existence, will be found to have undergone
a series of improvements in all respects analogous to the ad*
vances which have heen made in the institutions and social
condition of the people who speak it. In the first great ante-diluvian
language similar changes must have occurred.
It may be added that the divine origin of language is
maintained by a number of our best writers. Locke, in his
" Essay on the Human Understanding," Book III, chap. 1,
sec. 1, says : " God, having designed man for a sociable crea-ture,
made him not only with an inclination and under a ne-cessity
to have fellowship with those of his own kind ; but
furnished him, also, with language, which was to be the great
instrument and common tie of society."
LESSON III.
W^RITTEN LANGUAGE.
§ 5. Ideas may be communicated by written, as well as
spoken, language. The latter represents ideas by articulate
sounds ; the former employs certain arbitrary characters to
represent these articulate sounds, and thus through a double
medium conveys the ideas themselves. It is written language
alone that gives permanence to thoughts.
§ 6. Written language was devised by man. The exact
period ^f its origin is unknown; but it is supposed -.not to
have been invented until several centuries after men were in
What fact confirms us in the belief that in language much was left for man to per
feet ? What is Locke's view of the origin of language ?
§ 5. What else besides spoken language enables us to communicate ideas ? Hp-w
does spoken language represent ideas ? How, written language ? Which gives per-manence
to thoughts ?
§ 6. By whom was written language devised ? When Is it supposed to have been
WRITTEN LANGUAGE, 21
possession of a complete system of spoken language. The sys-tems
first employed were necessarily rude and imperfect ; but,
as men increased in experience and knowledge, successive im-provements
were made, until at last the present simple method
was devised. Four systems have been employed in different
ages and countries ; the Ideographic, the Verbal, the Syllabic,
and the Alphabetic.
§ 7. Ideographic System.—The earliest method of con-veying
thoughts by means of written characters is called Ideo-graphic.
It represented material objects and facts by means of
pictures ; and what was not material or visible, but was merely
conceived in the mind, and could not, therefore, be thus de-picted,
by symbols. Thus the idea of a battle was conveyed
by a pictorial representation of two men engaged in fighting
;
while the abstract idea of eternity was denoted by a circle,
which, being without beginning or end, was an appropriate
emblem. It represented things themselves, and not their
names.
The hieroglyphics* of Egypt constituted one kind of
Ideographic writing. The Mexicans, also, used it at the time
of Cortes' invasion ; their king was informed of the arrival of
the Spaniards and their ships, by pieces of white linen on
which were painted objects resembling vessels, and men in
Spanish garb. Ideographic writing is also said to have been
employed by some of the North American Indians.
§ 8. Verbal System.—The Verbal system is second in point
of antiquity. It appropriated a peculiar character to each
* This -word signifies " sacred carvings," being derived from the
Greek words 'Upos, sacred, and yXixpu, to carve.
Invented ? What was its character at first ? What change took place as men increased
In knowledge ? How many systems have prevailed ?
§7. What is the earliest system called? How did it represent material objects?
How, what was not material or visible ? Give an example. Did it represent the objects
fliemselves, or their names ? To what system do the hieroglyphics of Egypt belong ?
What other people used this system ? How was the Mexican king informed of the
Spaniards' arrival ? By what other race has Ideographic writing been employed ?
S 8. What is the second system called ? How did it represent material objects aaa
22 WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
object and idea, without reference to the word by which isucl
object or idea was represented. This was an improvement oi
the Ideographic system, but was objectionable on account of
the great number of characters rec^uired. Chinese, at the
present day, is written in a measure according to this system.
Old authorities inform us that it employs no less than 80,000
characters ; later researches, however, prove the number to be
considerably smaller. As each character represents an object
or abstract idea, and not merely a sound, it follows that any
thing written according to this system is understood by all
that are acquainted with the characters, although their own
spoken languages may be totally different; just as the value
of figures in their various combinations is universally known
to the nations of Europe, notwithstanding the difference in
their respective tongues. The written language of the Chinese
Empire, accordingly, is read and understood by the people of
Japan, Corea, Loo-choo, and Cochin China, as well as by
various other tribes who are unable to hold the slightest oral
intercourse with each other.
It is proper to add that this is denied by some, who contend that
Chinese is written mainly according to the Syllabic system, a description
of which follows. If any Japanese or Coreans are found to understand
written Chinese, it is, according to these authorities, from their having
studied it, or else on account of its resemblance to their own written
systems. Our present greatly increased facilities for obtaining infor-mation
respecting the people of the Celestial Empire and their pecu-liarities,
will soon dissipate all imcertainty on this subject ; and we shall
probably find that each opinion has some foundation in truth. It is
likely either that the characters are partly Verbal and partly Syllabic,
or else that there are two distinct systems, originally perhaps used by
different classes, but now employed indiscriminately at the option of the
writer.
abstract ideas? What rendered it objectionable? In what language is it still em-ployed
? How many characters are required in this language ? Need one understand
the spoken language, in order to understand a -written language in which the Verbal
ByBtem is employed ? Give an example. In illustration of this, what is mentioned
\ylth regard to the written language of the Chinese Empire ? What account do other
authorities give of written Chinese ? How do they e'splain the fact that seme Japanese
and Coreaus are found to understand it ? What is probable with regard te these dif-ferent
opinione ?
4 WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 23
§ 9. Syllabic Syste7n.—By the two systems above de-scribed,
things themselves were represented without reference
to the sounds by which they are denoted. But the frequent
recurrence of the same syllables in the names of things soon
led men to see the advantages that would be gained by repre-
Benting the sound instead of the thing signified ; and hence
originated a third method, commonly called the Syllabic sys-tem.
In this, certain characters were employed to represent,
not objects, but syllabic sounds, by a combination of which the
names of things were denoted. Thus the word agriculture
would be expressed by four characters only, one representing
each syllable. Though this was a great improvement on the
Verbal System, it was also objectionable on account of the
number of characters required. It is thought at one time to
have been used by many Asiatic nations ; and is still the
basis, though in a somewhat modified form, of the written lan-guage
of the Ethiopians and that of the Siamese.
§ 10. Alphabetic System.—The defects incident to the sys-tems
described above finally taught man the necessity of invent-ing
some new method of conveying his thoughts ; and hence re-sulted
the introduction and ultimate perfection of Alphabetic
writing, which is used in almost all languages at the present
day. This may be regarded as the greatest of human inven-tions,
and has contributed more than any thing else to the
progress of civilization. According to this system, the simple
sounds of the human voice are represented by appropriate
marks or letters, by combining which syllables and words are
formed ; and that with such precision and completeness that
not only can all material objects be denoted and described,
§ 9, How were ideas represented by the two systems already described ? What
system was nest invented ? According to the Syllabic system, what did each character
represent ? How were words denoted ? How many characters wonld this system re-quire
to express the word agriculture? How did the Syllabic compare with the
Verbal system ? What rendered the Syllabic system objectionable ? By what nations
was it at one time employed ? In what written languages is it still used ?
1 10. By the defects of these systems, what was man finally taught ? What system
was next invented ? How may it be regarded ? What are represented by the charao
24 ALPHABETIC WKITING^
but also abstract ideas, the emotions of the mind, and every
variety of thought
LESSON IV.
ALPHABETIC WRITING.
§11. Derivation.—The word alphabet is derived from
aA<jf)a, ^r\ra^ the first two Greek characters, and signifies the
letters of a written language disposed in their regular order.
§ 12. Origin.—The inventors of alphabetic writing are
unknown. According to the Jewish Rabbis, it is of divine
origin. " God," says one of their number, " created letters
on the evening of the first Sabbath." Adam Clarke also in-clines
to this opinion, although he places the revelation at a
later date, maintaining that God taught Moses the use of let-ters
by writing the Ten Commandments with His own finger
on the tables of stone. Eusebius, Clemens of Alexandria,
Cornelius Agrippa, and others, attribute this noble invention
to Moses himself; Philo, to Abraham; Irenseus and others,
to Enoch, who is by some thought to have been the author of
a work still extant, to which there is an apparent allusion in
the 14th and the 15th verse of St. Jude's Epistle. Bibliander
considers Adam entitled to the honor of the invention ; and
the Sabians actually produce a book which they pretend was
written by this patriarch. If, however, letters were known at
this early period, it can hardlj be explained why men, in spite
of the vastly superior facilities they afford, should have gone
back to the ideographic or the syllabic system.
ters employed in the Alphabetic system ? By combining theso characters, what ore
formed ?
§ 11. From what is the word alphabet derived ? What does it signify ?
§12. What is said of the inventors of alphabetic -vrriting ? To whom do the Jew-ish
Eabbis attribute its invention ? What is Adam Clarke's opinion ? To whonj do
Eusebius, Clemens, and Cornelius Agrippa attribute it ? To whom, Philo ? To whom,
Irenseus? What reason is there for supposing Enoch to have been acquainted with
ALPHABETIC WRITING. 25
Among the Greeks and Romans, the invention of letters
was generally attributed to the Phoenicians.* For the Grreeks
this was natural, as they received the greater part of their
alphabet directly from Cadmus, a native of Phoenicia, and
would therefore be likely to think that the honor of the inven-tion
belonged to that country. Yet it is clear that some of
the most learned of the Greeks regarded Cadmus in his true
light ; not as the inventor, but merely as the introducer, of let-ters.
Plato expressly says that Thaut, the Egyptian, was the
first to divide letters into vowels and consonants, mutes and
liquids. An individual of this same name, Thaut or Taaut, is
also mentioned by Sanchoniathon, the historian, as the inven-tor
of letters, but is claimed by him as a Phcenician, living in
the 12th or the 13th generation after the Deluge. To reconcile
these conflicting accounts, Jackson, in his " Chronological An-tiquities,"
holds that letters were invented by Taaut or Thoth,
the Phoenician, a son of Misraim, about five centuries after
the deluge, but were introduced into Egypt four hundred years
afterwards by a second Taaut ; whom he supposes to have been
identical with the celebrated Hermes Trismegistus of the
Greeks, the inventor, according to Diodorus, of grammar,
music, letters, and writing. Whether this supposition is cor-rect
or not, we may fairly conclude that, whichever of these
nations first employed letters, they were not long in becoming
* " Ipsa gens Phoenicimi in gloria magna est literarum inventionis."
* The race of Phoenicians themselves enjoy the great glory of the inven-tion
of letters.*
—
Flint, Book v., chap. 12.
" Phoenices primi (lamge si credimus) ausi
Mansuram rudibus vocem signare fignris."
—
Lucan.
this system ? By whom does Bibliander think it was invented ? What evidence of
this is furnished by the Sabians? What objection is there to the supposition that let-tsiB
w«re known thus early ?
To whom did the Greeks and Eomans attribute the invention of letters ? What led
tiie Greeks to this opinion ? How did some of the most learned Greeks regard Cad-mtja
? Whom does Plato mention in connection with the classification of letters ? Who
else alludes to this Thaut ? What does Sanchoniathon say of him ? How does Jackson
explain this inconsistency ? With what Greek personage does he suppose this second
2
26 ALPHABETIC WRITING
Known to the other ; as the commercial relations of the Egyp-tians
and Phoenicians were intimate and likely to make their
respective inventions common property.
According to some late writers who are versed in Oriental
literature, the claims of the Indians to the honor of having
devised letters are not without some weight. The Sanscrit,
which is the most refined of the Indian languages, is supposed
to have been one of the most ancient now existing, and is the
parent of almost every dialect of Southern Asia. The Hin
doos assert that they were acquainted with letters before any
other nation on the globe ; and that, in their ancient books,
sages from Egypt and other countries are represented as com-ing
to India, to inform themselves respecting alphabetic wri-ting
and other inventions for which the Hindoos were at that
early period distinguished. As, however, none of these an-cient
books have yet made their appearance in Europe, and as
national vanity has led the Orientals generally to exaggerate
their ancient standing in literature, art, and science, we can
hardly weigh these unsupported statements against the posi-tive
testimony presented from other quarters. *
Modern scholars seem to be divided in opinion as to
whether this great invention is due to the Phoenicians or the
Hebrews. Mr. Astle, whose essay on " The Origin and Prog-ress
of Writing" displays great research, and is justly re-garded
as high authority, on the evidence of the ancients, pro-nounces
in favor of the Phoenicians. It must be remembered,
however, that while the Grreeks were well acquainted with the
latter nation on account of their intimate commercial relations,
to the Hebrews they were almost entire strangers ; and
Taant to have been identical ? What is said of the relations that subsisted between the
Egyptians and the Phoenicians ?
What other people claim to have invented letters ? What is said of the Sanscrit
kr^age ? What do the Hindoos assert with regard to their ancient books ? Have
we a::iy reason to believe their statements ?
What are the views of modern scholars on this point? In whose favor does Mii
Astle decide ? What reason is there for supposing that the Greeks may have been mis-taken
in attributing the invention of letters to the Phoenicians? From what alphabet
ALPHABETIC WllITING. 27
hence, thougli their evidence may be reliable as regards the
claims of the Phoenician alphabet to an antiquity greater than
either the Egyptian or the Syrian can boast, they must still
have been unqualified to pronounce between it and the He-brew.
From the latter, indeed, the Phoenician alphabet is
now generally thought to have been derived. It is at least well
known that writing was practised among the Jews long before
we have any evidence of its having been in use among the
Phoenicians. The Pentateuch itself is a living proof that al-phabetic
writing was known to Moses, while the frequent allu-sions
to that art which it contains shows that this knowledge
was not confined to the legislator alone.* The injunction con-tained
in the 9th verse of the 6th chapter of Deuteronomy,
that the people should write the words of the law on the posts
of their houses and on their gates, proves such a general ac-quaintance
with the art as to justify the inference that it was
then no recent invention, but had been known and used for
years. The suggestion urged by some that the writing here
alluded to, as well as that in which the five books of Moses
were originally composed, may have been according to the
hieroglyphic or syllabic system, is inadmissible ; for we have
not the slightest trace of the existence of these sacred books
in any other form than that which they now bear.
Nor are we by any means driven to the inference which
some have drawn from the passage, that the Deity himself
communicated to Moses, and through him to the human race,
a knowledge of the alphabetic system. Had so important a
revelation been made, we have every reason to suppose that
*See Exodus, xxiv., 12; xxxil, 15, 16; xvii., 14; xxxiv., 1, 27: ITuu-
IS, xxxiii., 2: Deutekonomt, xxvii., 3.
is the Phoenician supposed to have been derived ? How early was alphabetic writing
blown among the Jews ? What leads us to suppose that the people generally were ac-quainted
with the art ? What precludes us from supposing that the writing hero al-luded
to was according to some earlier system ? What inference has been drS'Wn from
theee passages ? What renders it unlikely that this was the case ?
28 ALPHABETIC WRITING.
it would Lave been recorded in distinct terms by the Jewish
legislator,
§ 13. Tlie Greek Alphabet and its Derivatives.—What-ever
alphabet may have been the most ancient, one fact is
clearly established ; that Cadmus introduced sixteen letters
from Phoenicia into Grreece, to which Palamedes subsequently
added four, and Simonides, at a still later period, four more.
The Phoenician language was written from right to left. The Greek
at first followed it in this respect ; but was in course of time written
from right to left, and from left to right, alternately, as land is ploughed.
The Laws of Solon were engraved in this style, about 600 B. C, as also
were many inscriptions still to be seen on ancient monuments. Soon
after this period, however, the present manner of writing, from left to
right, came into general use. It had been introduced many years be-fore
by Pronapides, who, according to some, was a teacher of Homer's.
From the Greek alphabet, the Etruscan, Oscan, Latin, Coptic, and
others, were formed. The Latin alphabet contained twenty-five letters.
From it, ours is derived. The number and form of the Latin letters are
retained in English without any further change than the addition
of W.
§ 1 4. Comparison of Different Alphabets.—As letters are
merely arbitrary marks used to denote the elemental sounds
of which spoken language is composed, the number of letters
in the alphabet of any people ought to correspond exactly with
the number of such sounds which they employ. Yet in no
language do we find this to be the case. In some the alpha-betic
characters are the more numerous, in consequence both
of the admission of more than one letter to express the same
sound, and of the introduction of characters to denote com-
§ 13. Who introduced letters into Greece, and how many were there ? How many
were subsequently added, and by whom ?
How was the Phcenician language written ? What other language was written sim-ilarly
to it? What change was afterwards made as regards the Greek language?
What laws were written in this st34e ? By whom was the present method of writing
mtroduced ? What alphabets were derived from the Greek ? How many letters did
the Latin alphabet contain? What alphabet was derived from it? How do the two
correspond ?
§ 14. What are letters ? With what ought the number of letters in the alphabet of
any people to correspond? Do we find such a correspondence? What is the reason
«tf this inconsistency ? How do the different alphabets compare in the number of tholi
FORMATIOif OF LANGUAGE. 29
pound sounds wMcli could otherwise be perfectly represented
by combinations. In other languages some sounds are entirely
unrepresented, and consequently in these there is a deficiency
of alphabetic characters. Hence, though about the same num-ber
of elemental sounds are in use among different nationSj
there will be found no little difference in the number of
letters composing their various alphabets.
Thus, the English alphabet contains 26 letters ; the French, 23 ; the
Italian, 20 ; the Spanish, 27 ; the Kiissian, 41 ; the Hebrew^ Samaritai^
Syrian, and Chaldean, each 22 ; the Arabic, 28 ; the Persian and Egyp-tian,
each 32; the Turkish, 33; the Georgian, 36; the Armenian, 88;
the Sanscrit, 50 ; the Abyssinian, 202 ; and the Indian, or Brahmanic, 240
LES'SON V.
FORMATION OF LANGUAGE.
§ 15. There is every reason, as we have seen, to believe
that, while in the invention of language man was assisted by
the Deity, it was still only after many years of gradual devel-opment
and improvement that it arrived at its present perfec-tion.
As it is impossible for us to ascertain how far divine
assistance was vouchsafed, we shall consider the steps of for-mation
as it is most likely they would be taken by man, inde-pendently
of a direct revelation, under the stimulus of neces-sity
and the desire of pleasing.
The first words were, no doubt, Interjections ; for it would
be natural for men, however savage or ignorant of the use of
words, to employ exclamations for the purpose of expressing
sounds, and how in the number of their letters ? How many letters does the English
alphabet contain ? The French ? Italian ? Spanish ? Russian ? Hebrew, Samaritan,
Syriac, and Chaldean? Arabic? Persian and Egyptian? Turkish? Georgian?
Armenian ? Sanscrit ? Abyssinian ? Indian, or Brahmanic ?
§ 15. Is it probable that a complete system of language was given to man ? How
has it beea brought to its present perfection ? What words, la it supposed, were firsl
30 FORMATION OP LAKGUAGE.
their sudden emotions. The words that next came into US6
did not probably denote the name of any particular object
;
but were such as expressed a whole sentence, indicative of de-sires
or fears, or intended to convey some important news or
information ; as, the enetny is coming^ the victory is ours.
Individual objects next engaged attention. The savage
lived, we will say, in the midst of a forest. Inasmuch as he
derived his means of subsistence partly from certain trees
which it contained, he was soon compelled, in his intercourse
with others, to allude to them, and represent them by some
name, or, as grammarians would say, Noun. This appella-tion
he at first probably applied to all similar objects. It wag
not till experience taught him the difference between oaks,
cyjjresses, cedars, &c., and their respective peculiarities, that
he gave them specific names. As it often became necessary
to allude to more than one, it was not long before a distinct
form was adopted to denote the plural number.
Before all the visible objects of creation had been thus
arranged into classes and distinguished by general appella-tions,
and before experience and observation had assigned par-ticular
names to the various species, it must have been neces-sary
for men occasionally to allude to a specific object in con-tradistinction
to the rest of its class. To identify it, therefore,
intelligibly to another, they would have to distinguish it by
stating either its distinctive qualities or the relations in which
it stood to other objects. Thus, if they desired to allude to
a tree of particular size, or one standing by a spring, instead
of characterizing it as the fir or the elm, they would naturally
say, the large tree^ the tree hy the spri7tg. In this way were
formed Adjectives, which generally express quality, and Prep-ositions,
which indicate the relations subsisting between Noims
(often called substantives) and other words.
employed J Explain the reason. What words nest came into use ? Give an exampl©
Describe the way in which Nouns were formed. When were specific names coined ?
What distinct form was afterwards adopted, and why? Describe the necessity which
^.alled for the Adjective. Give an example. What other class of words had the sama
FOKMATION OF LANGUAGE. 3l
Though several important steps had by this time been
taken towards the formation of a complete system of language,
yet the means which it afforded of distinguishing objects were
still imperfect; for, when any substantive was used in dis-course,
as tree, river, horse, how was it to be known which of
the many individuals embraced in the general class, which
tree, river, or horse, was meant ? When the thing alluded to
was within the range of sight, it could without difficulty be
pointed out by a movement of the hand ; but, when this was
not the case, it became necessary to invent words by which
the particular object intended could be specified. Hence
arose the Adjective pronouns thit and that^ and the Article
the.
Yerbs must necessarily have been coeval with the first
attempts towards the formation of language, as no affirmation
can be expressed without the assistance of this part of speech.
We seldom speak except to express our opinion that some-thing
is or is not, that some act does or does not take place
;
and the word which affirms the fact or state is always a
Verb.
Thus, then^ we have seen Interjections, Nouns, Adjectives
Prepositions, Articles, Adjective Pronouns, and Verbs, suc-cessively
called for by the wants of men, and consequently in-vented
as component parts of language. Personal Pronouns
were probably the creation of a later age. A young child, it
has been observed, almost invariably repeats the noun instead
of using the substitute. Speaking of himself, a child would
be likely to say, " Grive Johnny Johnny's whistle", and not
*•' Give me my whistle." So great, indeed, seems to be the
disinclination of youthful minds to multiply terms that it ia
often found quite difficult to teach them the use of the pro-origin
? Give an example. Give an account of the origia of the Adjective Pronouns
thie and that. What Article originated in the same way ? What class of words is
required for the expression of affirmations ? When did they come into use ?
Of what class of words have we thus far traced the origin ? What part of speech
was the creation of a later age ? Are children generally inclined to use the personal
32 FORMATION OF LANGUAGE
noun. Such was the case, in all probability, with mau in the
infancy of his being ; and it is not likely that he added this
new species of words to his primitive and necessary stock,
until sufficient advance had been made in the formative proc-ess
to show their great advantage as regards brevity of ex-pression
and pleasantness of sound.
Among the early races of men, it seems probable that
there was much less said than at the present day. Their sen
tences were at once fewer, shorter, and simpler, than ours
As successive advances, however, were made, and it was found
that mutual intercourse was a source of pleasure, men did not
confine themselves simply to what it was necessary to com-municate,
but imparted freely to each other even such
thoughts as had no practical bearing. The original brief
mode of expression was gradually laid aside ; longer senten-ces
were used ; and a new class of words was required to con-nect
clauses so closely related in construction and sense as
not to admit of separation into distinct periods. This was the
origin of Conjunctions ; and the same cause, when man's taste
was still further improved and he began to think of beautify-ing
language while he extended its power of expression, led to
the invention of the Relative Pronoun.
To tell how, when, and where the action expressed by the
verb was performed, and also to indicate the degree in which
any object possessed a certain quality, as for instance how tall
a tree was, man's inventive faculties were not long in perceiv-ing
that a new species of words was required and in forming
them accordingly. Adverbs were thus introduced ; and with
them the elements of language, or Parts of Speech, as they
are termed, were complete. Man now had the means of ex-pressing
fully and intelligibly all that came into his mind
;
pTononn ? What do they employ in its place ? What is gained by the use of the Per-sonal
Prononn? What was the character of the sentences used ty the early races of
men ? What change took place in the course of time ? What kind of sentences came
Into use? What new clasp ot words was- thus required? What parts of speech ongi-nated
in this way ? Describe the origin of Adverbs. What are the elements of Ian-
FORMATION OP LANGUAGE. 33
and his future efforts were to be directed, not to the creation
of new elements, but to improving and modifying those already
devised, to harmonizing the whole and uniting them in a con-sistent
system. Up to this point necessity had operated ; the
improvements subsequently made must be attributed to the
desire of pleasing.
§ 16. In thus tracing the origin of the Parts of Speech^
we have based our theory and deductions on the suppositiou
that man's starting-point was a state of utter ignorance. It
is believed by many that this ignorance was entailed on the
human race at the same time with, death, as a punishment foi
the first disobedience; that, immediately on their expulsion
from Eden, our first parents lost that enlightenment with
which they had been originally endowed by the Deity. Others
think that this sinking to savagism was gradual, and was the
result of the moral degradation which, as the Bible informs
us, characterized most of the descendants of Adam at the
time of the Deluge. In either of these cases, or if there was
no direct revelation from on high, the successive steps in the
formation of language were probably similar to those described
above, for such would be their natural order. If God did
assist men directly, it is likely that He merely put them in
possession of such elements as barely enabled them to com-municate
with each other what was absolutely essential, and
that much was left for human ingenuity to devise ; in which
case, also, we may conclude that the steps of formation were
successively taken in the order described above.
In what condition men were as regards their language at the time
of the Deluge, cannot be ascertained. Different communities probably
spoke different dialects, of greater or less comprehensiveness and power
of expression, according to the various circumstances of their position
and history.
guage, or classes of words, called ? After the formation of the parts of speech, to what
were man's efforts directed ?
§ 16. On what supposition is this theory of the origin of words based ? According
to some, when was this ignorance entailed on man ? What is the opinion of others on
this subject? In either case, what seems probable with respect to the steps of for-mation?
To what extent is it likely that the Deity assisted men? What is said r&
gsvrdlng the different dialects spoken at the time of the Deluge ?
2*
34 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
LESSON YI.
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
§ 17. Britain before the Roman Conquest.—The earliest
authentic account that we have of the inhabitants of Britain
is from Julius Caesar, by whom the southern part of the
Island was conquered in the year 54 b. c. The Ro^nan gen-eral
informs us that he found the people of Kent far more
civilized than the rest, and adds that there was no great differ-ence
between their customs and those of GrauL* This is not
to be wondered at, as the southern part of the island was un-questionably
peopled directly from Gaul; that is, from the
northern districts of what is now called France, which lay
directly opposite and were separated from it by a strait so
narrow as to prove no obstacle to emigration. The historian
Tacitus, who, in his Life of Agricola, takes occasion to de-scribe
the an-cient British, confirms this account. He remarks
that many points in the personal appearance of the Silures, or
inhabitants of South Wales, together with their proximity to
the Spanish coast, afford sufficient foundation for the belief
that they were a branch of the Iberi, or first settlers of Spain ;
while there was little question that the parts opposite to Gaul
had been seized on by the people of that country, their re-spective
languages, religious rites, and general characteristics,
bearing a marked resemblance to each other.f
* Ex his omnibus longe sunt humanissimi qui Cantium incoiunt
:
qufB regio est maritima omnis ; neqne multum a Gallica diiferunt con-suetudiue,
—
C^sar, de Bello Gallico, Lib. V., c. 14.
f In universum tamen sestimanti, Gallos vicimim solum occupasse
eredibile est. Eorum sacra reprehendas, snperstitionnm persuasione:
sermo hand multum diversus : in deposcendis periculis eadem audacia,
§ 17. Who famishes us with the earliest authentic accotmt of the people of
Britain? What part of the island did Cossar conquer, and when? Which of the in-habitants
did he find most civilized ? Whom did they resemble in their manners and
customs? How is this accounted for? Who confirms Caesar's account? Where did
the Silures live ? From whom, according to Tacitus, did they derive their origin ? By
whom does he think that the part'^ opposite Gaul were peopled ? What great race had
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35
The great Celtic race was at this early period scattered
over the whole of Southwestern Europe ; and no doubt suc-cessive
bodies had found their way to Britain, either directly,
or after a temporary residence on the opposite coasts of the
continent. At the time of Caesar's invasion, therefore, in
Britain, as well as in Gaul and Spain, dialects of the great
Celtic tongue were spoken ; but it was not to this original
vernacular that our English of the present day owes its origin.
We allude to it here because it is important that the student
should be acquainted with its history and be able to trace its
connection with our language, in the formation of which it has
had its share, in a measure directly, but more particularly
through the medium of its derivatives, the Latin and Norman
French.
Ireland appears to have been originally peopled by colonies from
Carthage, and through this channel to have received its language from
the Phoenicians, to whom also the Celts seem to have been indebted for
theirs. Tlieir own historians declare this to have been the case ; and
the Irish language was originally called Bearni Feni, or the Phoenician
tongue. N"o inscription, however, is to be found in Ireland in Phoenician
characters ; and it is therefore probable that the colonies which emi-grated
thither from Carthage started after the First Punic War. for it
Has at this period that the Carthaginians gave up their own alphabet
for that of the Eomans. Subsequently to this settlement, there was
probably a considerable influx of Iberi ft-om Spain ; who carried with
them their Celtic dialect, and, grafting it on the Phoenician before in
use, produced a tongue which, though not identical with that of ancient
Britain, bore a close resemblance to it.
et, ubi advenere, in detractandis eadem formido.
—
^Tacttus, Julii Agric'
olce Vita, XL
settled in Southwestern Europe ? What language prevailed both there and in Britain,
at the time of Caesar's invasion ? Is Celtic the groundwork of English ? What share
has it had in the formation of our language ?
Whence does Ireland seem to have been peopled ? From whom did it receive its
language? What was the Irish language originally called? At what period is it
prot/able that the Carthaginian colonies emigrated to Ireland ? What reason Is there
tor this supposition? What other element, besides the Phoenician tongue, had a share
li the formation of ancient Irish ? By whom was the Celtic language introduced into
Ireland? What islands, also, were colonized by the Spaniards? What was their an-cient
name ? For what were they renovvned ? What people ciirried on an extensive
86 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The Spaniards, also, we are informed by Dionysius,* colonized the
Seilly Isles, those famous Kassiterides, renowned among the ancients for
their exhaustless stores of tin. The Phoenicians seem, from a very early
date, to have carried on an extensive commerce with these islands, foj
the express purpose of supplying the nations on the Mediterranean witj
this useful metal. For a long time they succeeded in keeping the posi-tion
of the islands a secret ; and we are informed that a Phoenician
trader, perceiving himself to be watched by a Roman merchantman, ran
hia vessel ashore rather than betray their locality, and was recompensed
for his loss from the treasury of the state. The successive attempts of
different nations to discover these valuable islands were, however, at
last successful ; and the Kassiterides, as well as the large islands to
which they were adjacent, were soon peopled by the restless Celts.
§ 18. Celtic Language.—The Celtic Language derives
its name from the word KeXrot, the appellation given by the
Greeks to the primitive inhabitants of Western Europe, who
came originally from the same stock as the Greeks and
Romans themselves, but had pushed their migrations further.
The name was afterwards assumed by an individual tribe, who,
after various wanderings, settled in Gaul immediately south of
the Loire. Celtic is regarded by etymologists as the parent of
most of the languages of Southern and Western Europe, of some
African tongues, and the various dialects of the two Tartaries. j
Latin and Greek are also reckoned among its derivatives.}:
* To0i KacrcTLTepoio yevedXif]
Acpyeioi vaiovcriu ayavoi TraiSes ''l^ripcav.
DioNTsros, Perierg., v. 563.
•)- La langue celtique dans son sens le plus extendu, est la langue que
parlerent les premiers habitans de I'Europe, depuis les rives de I'Helles-pont
et de la Mer Egee, jusques a celle de I'ocean ; depuis le cap Sigee
aux portes de Troie, jusques au cap de Finisterre in Portugal, ou jusques
en Ireland.
—
Gebelin, Disc. Prelim., art. 2.
\ Lingua Hetrusca, Phrygia, Celtica, affines sunt omnes ; ex uno
fonte derivatse. E"ec Grssca longe distat ; Japheticee sunt omnes ergo et
ipsa Latina.
—
Stieknhelm,
trade with the Kassiterides ? What incident is related in illustration of the value which
the Phoenicians set upon their exclusive trade with these islands ? By whom, at last,
were the Kassiterides peopled ?
§ 18. From what does the Celtic language derive its name ? From what stock did
the KsAtoi spring ? By whom was the name afterwards assumed ? Vv hat tongue^
bove been formed from the Celtic? From wha* language was Celtic aa offshoot
What resemblance cenfirras this fact ?
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37
Celtic was itself an offshoot from tlie Hebrew or Phceni-cian
tongue ; thus etymology, as well as profane history, con-firms
the account given by Moses of the peopling of the earth
from one parent family. A marked resemblance may still be
observed between the Hebrew and Welsh of the present day
;
and we can only wonder that thirty centuries, involving so
many political revolutions, should not have produced a greater
difference between them.
As we have said that the original British was derived from
the same stock as the language of Greece and that of Rome, it
may seem strange that there was not sufficient resemblance
between it and the latter to be observed and recorded by
Caesar when he invaded the island. It must be remembered,
however, that centuries had elapsed from the time of their
formation ; that all languages at that early day, being spoken
rather than written, were particularly liable to mutations
;
and that, after separating from each other, all intercourse be-tween
the kindred tribes ceased, and their dialects must there-fore
in a great measure have lost their affinity. The radicals
common to both must have assumed distinct forms, and the
new objects and inventions peculiar to each must have origi-nated
new terms to which the others were strangers. As they
did not advance towards civilization with the same degree of
rapidity, so their respective languages could not have been
equally copious or polished ; for words multiply with ideas
and successive advances in art and science. In process of
•time, these causes, added to the difference in the natural
features of their respective countries and in the objects with
which they were surrounded, must have obscured the common
roots, and produced such accessions of new words to each dia-lect
as to make them seem entirely distinct from one another.
Even the temperature, soil, and atmosphere of a country have a
great effect on its language, " It is commonly observed," says Rowland,
What connection had Greek and Latin with the original language of Britain?
How, then, is it to be explained that there was not sufficient resemblance between them
to be observed and recorded by Caesar ? W^hat changes must have been made, and
why ? What natural circumstances produce changes in the language of a country ?
38 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
the learned author of " Mona Antiqua Restorata ", " that different cli
mates, airs, and aliments, do very much diversify the tone of the parts
and muscles of hiiman bodies ; on some of which the modulation of the
voice much depends. The peculiar moisture of one country, the drought
of another (other causes from food, &c., concurring), extend or contract,
ewell or attenuate, the organs of the voice, so that the sound made
thereby is rendered either shriU or hoarse, soft or hard, plain or lisping,
in proportion to that contraction or extension. And hence it is, that
the Chinese and Tartars have some sounds in their language that Euro-peans
can scarcely imitate."
It is probable that the Celtic spoken in Britain and G-anl
before their conquest by the Komans bore a much closer re-semblance
to the parent tongue than the dialects that prevail-ed
in the Southeast of Europe ; for the obvious reason that
the former countries had paid less attention to literature and
science, enjoyed fewer opportunities of intercourse with other
nations, and suffered less from invasion, war, and conquest.
§ 19. Branches of Celtic.—Of the Celtic stock there are
two branches ; the British or Cambrian, and G-aelic or Erse.
The former was the dialect that anciently prevailed in Brit-ain
and Gaul; embracing the Cornish, spoken till a recent
period in Cornwall, and the Armorican of the French province
of Bretagne. It is represented by the Welsh of the present
day. To the second or Erse branch belong the ancient and
present Irish, the G-aelic of the Highlands of Scotland, and
the Manks of the Isle of Man.
In the first class is placed, as we have seen, the language of Bre-tagne
or Brittany, on the north-west coast of France, generally called
Armorican. An astonishing resemblance exists between this tongue and
Welsh, which proves them to have had a common origin and to have
Buffered very few subsequent modifications. So similar are they that
What does Eowland say in this connectiotL ? Which resembled more closely the
parent tongue, the Celtic of Gaul and Britain, or that of Southeastern Europe ? WTiat
reason is assigned for this ?
% 19. How many branches are there of the Celtic stock V Name them. Where did
the British or Cambrian prevail ? What dialects did it embrace ? By what is it repre-
Bented at the present day ? What languages belong to the Erse branch ? To which
branch does the language of Brittany belong? What is it generally called ? What
tongue d OOF Armorican resemble? What docs this prove? Eelatc an. incident illas-
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39
>wheD. a Welsh regiment passed through Brittany some years since, after
the conquest of Bellisle, they could converse with the inhabitants and
were readily understood by them. When and how this district was set-tled
is not known ; but the inhabitants are manifestly of British, and
therefore primarily of Celtic, origin. Some suppose that a body of
British were driven by the Saxons across the Strait of Dover and settled
on the French coast ; others give credit to a tradition which prevails
among the Armoricans, that they are descended from some British sol-diers
who were summoned to Italy as auxiliaries to the Eoman army,
and who, on their return, seized on this district for a home in conse-quence
of having learned that the Saxons had become masters of their
native land.
§ 20. Peculiarities of Celtic.—Of the ancient Celtic we
can form a tolerably correct idea by examining the modern
Welsb and Irish. Its peculiarities seem to have been,
I. A lack of inflection in its nouns ; that is, they did not
undergo any change of termination to indicate a change
of case. The modern Irish has a peculiar form for the
dative plural ; but with this exception there is no change
in the terminations of nouns either in Irish, Welsh, or Ar-morican.
II. A system of initial mutations, by which the noun alters
its first letter or receives a prefix, according to its rela-tion
to other words in the sentence.
It must be remembered that we are now speaking of the
original language of Britain, and not of the English of the
present day. The formation of the latter was the work of a
later date. Yet it contains some traces of the old Celtic, in-troduced
either directly from the remains of that language,
trative of the resemblance between "Welsh and Armorican. "When and how was Brit-tany
settled? How do some account for its settlement? "What tradition prevaila
among the Armoricans on the subject?
§ 20. How may we form an idea of the ancient Celtic ? "What peculiarity belonged
to its nouns ? How do modern Irish, "Welsh, and Armorican agree with ancient Celtio
in. this particular ? How was the relation between the noun and other Avords in the
sentence indicated ?
Is Celtic, the original language of Britain, the groundwork of our presenc Enghsb (
Who^. <;onnectioD is there between them ?
40 ORIGIN OF THE EHGLISH LANGUAGE.
still preserved in their greatest purity in the British Isles, oi
at second-hand from the Norman French or some other deriv-ative
from the same stock.
§21. Period of Roman Supj-emacy.—Britain was sub-jugated
by the Romans about 50 b. c, and remained in pos^
session of its conquerors for four centuries. It was an in-variable
point of policy with the Bomans to introduce their
Own language into conquered states, as the most effective
means of removing their prejudices and reconciling them to
their bondage. Latin, consequently, supplanted a number of
aboriginal tongues, just as English has superseded the verna-culars
of the native Indians of America. In some countries,
where a war of extermination was carried on, this change was
immediate ; in others it was more gradual. The Celtic of
Britain, however, does not seem to have received much modi-fication
during the period of Boman supremacy. Our lan-guage
has, it is true, many derivatives from the Latin ; but
these came through the medium of the Norman French, and
were not introduced in the days of Caesar or his immediate
successors. Though numerous Boman garrisons were stationed
in the island, and though many of the British youth were
drafted into the armies of the Empire, while others were sent
to Borne for their education, yet, either from their inaptness at
learning or their aversion to those who had deprived them of
liberty, the mass of the people continued firm in their attach-ment
to their ancient language and in its exclusive use.
Many, however, of the higher classes became acquainted with
Latin, and through their means some words were introduced
from it which are still found in modern Welsh. English, also,
contains a few terms introduced from the language of the
§ 21. At what date did the Eomans subjugate Britain ? How long did it remain in
their possession ? What policy did the Eomans pursue in the states they conquered ?
What was the consequence ? Does the Celtic of Britain appear to have received much
modification during the period of Koman supremacy ? How, then, are we to account
for the Latin derivatives in our language ? What opportunities did the British youth
havG of learning the Eoraan tongue ? Why did they not embrace these opportunities ?
What class remained firmest in their attachment to their ancient language? Througli
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGB. 41
Romans at this period ; such as the word street^ from the
Latin strata ; and names of places ending in coin, a contrac
tion of colonia (a colony), and in cester, derived from castro
(a camp). Hence the origin of Linco/?^, Leicester, Gloucester
LESSON VII.
ORIGIN OF TJIE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (CONTINUED).
§ 22. The Saxon Conquest.—In this state of comparative
purity the language of the British Celts remained until the
beginning of the 5th century. About this time, the whole of
Southern Europe began to be overrun by Goths, Huns, anc*
other Northern barbarians ; who, allured by the advantages of
a milder climate and more productive soil, emigrated froi7«
what was then called Scandinavia, answering to our moderij,
Norway and Sweden, and wrested province after province from
the Roman Empire. Their conquest was so complete as tc
effect a radical change in the customs, laws, and of course dia
lects, of the districts they subjugated. The languages spoken
by the Northern tribes were mostly of a common origin, and
belonged to the great Gothic stock
;
yet, though resembling
each other in their main features, they were distinguished by
many minor points of difference. The Huns and Lombards,
overrunning Italy, soon corrupted the Latin language and orig-inated
the modern Italian. The Franks and Normans, graft-ing
their vernacular oil the Latin- Celtic of Gaul, produced
what class were a fow Latin words introduced at this early period ? Give some Latia
derivatives of this date, with the words from which they were formed.
§ 22. How long did the Celtic of Britain remain comparatively pure ? About thi»
yme, what incursions began to be made in Southern Europe ? Whence did the North-ern
barbarians come ? What was the result of their conquests ? To what stock did
their languages belong? Which of those tribes overran Italy ? What language origi-aated
in their corraptions of Latin ? What tribes grafted their vernacular on tho
42 ' ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Norman French. Spanis-K and Portuguese arose from a simi-lar
combination of the language of the Yisigoths with the half
Celtic and half Roman patois of the Peninsula, subsequent!;^
modified bj the introduction of somo Arabic elements during
the supremacy of the Moors in Spain.
Nor did Britain escape invasion. While the attention of
Scandinavian nations was directed principally towards South-ern
Europe, several German tribes fixed their eyes on this iso-lated
province of Rome ; and, either allured by the hope of
plunder, or induced to send out colonies by the denseness of
theii population, despatched thither successive expeditions.
Prior to this period, indeed, German colonies of greater or less
size had been planted in Britain ; for we read that this was done
by the Emperor Antoninus, at the close of the war with the
Marcomanni. These early settlers, however, were too few to
effect much change in the customs of the inhabitants. It may
have been through these colonists that their kinsmen on the
continent obtained a knowledge of the island, and were in-duced
to emigrate thither in such numbers. Other accounts
state that they went on the invitation of the British themselves,
who solicited their assistance against the Picts, a fierce race
occupying the northern part of the island ; and that, having
succeeded in vanquishing the latter, they were tempted to re-main
by ihe fertility of the soil and the pleasantness of the
climate. However this may be, the first expedition of which
we have any authentic account was led by Hengist and Horsa,
and effected a landing on the shores of Kent, a. d. 449. It
was in this county, therefore, that the original British was
first superseded by the mother-tongue of our present English.
Latin-Celtic of Gaul ? What tongue was thus produced ? How did Spanish and Por-tuguese
arise? What elements were subsequently introduced?
To what part of Europe was the attention of Scandinavian nations principally
ilirected? What tribes fixed their eyes on Britain ? What induced them to send ex-peditions
thither ? By whom, and after what war, had German colonies been previously
planted in Britain ? Had these early settlers effected any change in the customs of the
Inhabitants ? How ^id the Germans come to send expeditions to Britain in th» fifth
t^ntury ? Why did ihey remain in Britaia? Who led the first expedition f Wtera
ORIGm OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43
Two traditions are handed down with respect to the stratagem by
means of which Hengist procured sufficient land for his first settlement.
Geoffrey of Monmouth, a "Welsh historian of the twelfth century, states
that he purchased for a nominal simi as much land as could be inclosed
with an ox-hide ; and that then, having cut it into narrow strips, he
3urrounded with it an extent of ground sufficient for the erection of a
castle. This is a familiar story, found in the traditions of various na-tions.
The other version is given by the Saxons. They say that their
great leader bought from the inhabitants a lap-full of earth at what
fleemed to his companions an -extravagant price ; but that he proceeded
to sow this soil over a large tract, and then, since it could not be distin-guished
from the other ground, laid claim to the whole, and made good
his pretensions by force of arms.
A second ©xpedition from the north of Grermany followed
in the year 477, under the command of Ella. This chieftain
established himself in what is now called Sussex (that is,
South Saxony). The kingdoms of Wessex (West Saxony), lying
in what is now known as the County of Hants, and Essex
(East Saxony), were next settled by successive expeditions, in
the years 495 and &30 respectively. After this, large bodies
of Germans were constantly arriving. It is unnecessary to
trace any further the history of their emigrations.
As soon as they found themselves possessed of sufficient
strength, the new comers formed the determination of seizing
upon the whole island, or at least all those parts of it that
were specially favored by Nature. In this they finally suc-ceeded
,• and the original inhabitants, to avoid extermination,
were obliged to flee to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall,
where they maintained their independence for many centuries,
and bave preserved their language, with but little alteration,
to the present day. In the rest of the island, however, a radi-cal
change both in language and customs immediately took
lid they effect a landing, and when ? WTiat tradition is preserved by Geoffrey of Mon-tnouth
respecting Hengist's stratagem for procuring land? What is the Saxon ac-count?
In what year did a second expedition follow ? Under whose command ? Where
did this chieftain establish himself? What kingdoms wore nest settled, and in what
years ? What deternaination did the new comers soon form ? Did they succeed la
tarrytng it through ? Whither were the original inhabitants obliged to fleo ? What
44 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
place. There was no engrafting of one tongue on another, as
was the case in Southern Europe ; but an immediate substitu-tion
of the language of the conquerors for that of the yan-quished.
The tongue spoken by these German invaders i&
therefore the real groundwork of our language ; a fact well
established bj history, as well as by the etymological analogies
subsisting between English and the various dialects of G-othio
origin.
§ 23. The Invaders.—By which of the German tribes the
expeditions alluded to were fitted out, was formerly a subject
of doubt, but seems now to be satisfactorily established. The
Saxons, Angles, and Frisians, appear to have been the prin-cipal
ones concerned in them. Of these, the first occupied the
valley of the Eiver Weser, their territory, as far as we can
now locate it, corresponding with the Kingdom of Hanover,
the Duchy of Oldenburg, and part of Holstein. They were a
powerful people, and constituted the chief body of the in-vaders.
This is inferred from the fact that the ancient
Britons knew their German conquerors by no other name than
that of Saxons ; and still further because this is the appeUa-tion
which the Welsh, Armoricans, and Gaelic- Celts univer-sally
apply to the English of the present day. Yet, though
the Saxon element originally preponderated, the Angles were
evidently strongly represented ; for they enjoy the distinction
of having given their name permanently to the island, Eng-land
being nothing more than a corruption of Angleland.
Who these Angles were, is by no means certain. Tacitus
and Ptolemy allude to them ; the former, indefinitely, in connec-tion
with other tribes, while the latter locates them in the
central part of the valley of the Elbe. They seem at one
time to have been a distinct and powerful tribe, and were per-change
took place in the rest of the island ? What tongue is the real groundwork ct
our language ? How is this fact established ?
§ 23. What German tribes seem to have taken the principal part in the invasion
of Britain ? Where did the Saxons live? With what modern countries did their ter-ritories
correspond ? Whence do we infer that the Saxons constituted the chief body
ftf the invaders ? What other tribe was strongly represented ? What reason have we
ORIGIN OF TRE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. C5
haps allied bj birth to their Saxon neighbors. Having become
reduced in number by war or some other calamity, they
were incorporated with the latter, and found their way to
Britain along with them. While on the Continent, they were
far outnumbered by the Saxons, and played so unimportant
a part that little mention is 'made of them in history : the in-fluence
of the two nations in Britain was more nearly equal
;
and the Angles may at length have preponderated over their
kinsmen and allies, and thus succeeded in giving name to their
new habitation and its language.
The Frisians are not generally thought to have formed
part of the German settlers of Britain ; but that they were
concerned in one or more of the expeditions seems probable
from the following considerations :
—
I. Occupying the whole coast from the Zuyder Zee to the
mouth of the Elbe, they must have been situated between
the Saxons and the sea, and are therefore likely to have
joined the latter tribe, to a greater or less extent, in their
maritime expeditions.
II. The historian Procopius, speaking of Britain, expressly
mentions the Frisians as composing a part of its popula-tion.*
Hengist himself is represented as a Frisian by
some authorities. The Saxon Chronicle, also, alludes to
Frisians in Britain.
III. The Frisian language, as now spoken in Friesland, bears
a closer resemblance to English than any other known
tongue.
* Bpirriaw 5h tV vrjcrou eOvrj rpia TroXvavdpairorara %xov(Ti, fiacriXeis
re ets aurwi/ eKacTTca i<p4aTriKev, ovoixara Se K^lrai rols eOveffi tovtols Ay*
yihoL re koI ^picraoves Koi ol rrj vijcrct) oixavvfj-oi BpiTTwyes.—PROCOPitls,
B. 6. IV. 20.
for supposing this ? What early historians allude to the Angles ? Where does Ptolemy
Locate them ? What seems to have been their early history ? On the Continent, ho-w
did they compare in power and influence with the Saxons ? How, in Britain ? What
other tribe seem to have taken part in these incursions? Explain how their
position renders this supposition probable. What historian and what work mention
Frisians as forminsf part of the populatioa of Britain ? What warrior ia by some repro-
IS ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Dr. Latnam, whose researches have thrown much light upon this
subject, and whose " Hand-book of the English Language" is repleta
with scholarship and learning, thus sums up the whole matter : " It waa
certainly from the Anglo-Saxon, and probably from a part of the Frisian
area, that Great Britain was first invaded."
§ 24, The Saxo7i Language.—The language whicli thus
suddenly superseded the Celtic of the ancient British was, as
has been remarked, an offshoot of the great Gothic stem,
which itself dates as far back as the Celtic. The nations
that spoke the various Grothic dialects lived in the northern
part of Europe, having probably emigrated at an ear]y date
from Southwestern Asia, or been driven out by more power-ful
tribes. Their bards, whose business it was to recite the
exploits of their heroes, agree in assigning to their race an
Eastern origin ; and Herodotus mentions the Germans among
other tribes of ancient Persians.* The Gothic stock is divid-ed
into two great branches : the Scandinavian, including the
dialects of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland ; and the
Teutonic, or Germanic. To this latter division Anglo-Saxon
belongs.
§ 25. Norse or Danish Element.—The first introduction
of a foreign element into the pure Saxon of England was oc-casioned
by the invasion of the Scandinavian nations during
the ninth and the tenth century. The pirates who effected
the conquest of the island are generally called Danes ; but the
Norwegians seem to have played the principal part in these
expeditions. Their supremacy must have caused, to a certain
* ''AAAot 8e nepcrat eiVl o'/5e, TiavQiaXaioi, Arjpovcriatoi, V epfxav loi.-^
Heeodotus, Clio, 125.
gented to have been a Frisian ? What additional evidence have we in the languj^
now spoken in Friesland ? What does Dr. Latham say on the subject ?
§ 24. From what great stock did the Saxon language spring ? Where did the
Gothic dialects prevail at this time ? From what part of the world did the nations
using them originally migrate? What evidence have we of this? Into how many
branches is the Gothic stock divided ? What are they ? What dialects are included In
the Scandinavian branch ? To which division does Anglo-Saxon belong ?
§ 25. What occasioned the first introduction of a foreign element into the pure Saxon
of Englftnd ? What name is generally given to the pirate-conquerors ? What nation
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 47
extent, a temporary admixture of foreign terms. To decide
what words we owe to this era is extremely difficult, on ac-count
of the analogy subsisting between the Scandinavian and
German dialects, both of which, it will be remembered, were
derived from the same Grothic parent. It is certain, however,
that very few Danish terms were ultimately incorporated ; as
the island suffered a change of masters, rather than of people,
customs, or laws. The Norsemen have left in our language
but little trace of their invasion ; and this chiefly in the names
of places on or near the coast.
LESSON YIII.
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (CONTINUED).
§ 26. First Introduction of Norman French Elements.—
Not perceptibly affected by the iqjrasions of the Norsemen or
even by their temporary usurpation of the throne, Saxon con-tinued
to be the language of the island until the Norman Con-quest,
1066 A. D. During the six hundred years that elapsed
between its introduction and this event, it underwent, indeed,
some modifications of greater or less moment ; and these are
particularly noticeable in the century immediately preceding
the battle of Hastings. It was at this period that the first
importation of Norman French words took place, under the
auspices of Edward the Confessor. Educated in France and
prejudiced in favor of all that belonged to that country, this
prince, on returning to England and assuming the throne,
Burrounded himself with Norman favorites, and sought to in-troduce
French customs into his court and French idioms into
liad most to do with the invasion ? What effect did theii' snpremacy produce on the
language? "Were many new terms incorporated? As regards the names of places,
where have they left the principal traces of their invasion ? What renders it difficult
to determine the words introduced by the Norsemen ?
§ 26. How long did Saxon, in comparative purity, continue to be the language <rf
48 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
his language ; much to the disgust of his subjects, whose affeo-tions
he estranged by this injudicious course. Inconsiderable
as were the changes thus brought about, they served to pavo
the way for those fundamental modifications which the Nor-man
Conquest was destined to produce.
§ 27. Norman Conquest and its Effects.—William, Duke
of Normandy, invaded England 1066 a. d., and, having won.
the battle of Hastings, seated himself without delay upon the
throne. Eesolved to wean the people from their ancient in-stitutions,
he endeavored, as the most effective means of ac-complishing
this object, to make them forget their language.
With this view, he ordered that in all schools throughout the
kingdom the youth should be instructed in the French tongue;
and this ordinance was generally complied with, and remained
in force till after the reign of Edward III. It was also re-quired
that the pupils of grammar-schools should translate
their Latin into French, and that all conversation among
them should be carried on in one of these two languages.
Anglo-Saxon was banished from the tribunals of the land, and
pleadings were required to be in French ; deeds were drawn
and laws compiled in the same language ; no other tongue
was used at Court ; it was exclusively employed in fashion-able
society ; and the English nobles themselves, ashamed of
their own country, affected to excel in this foreign dialect.
The lower classes, however, at first vigorously resis-ted these
attempts ; and for fifty years all that was done towards chang-ing
the language was effected by the hand of power. Yet in
spite of this feeling on the part of the people, even during the
very period in question, the intercourse necessarily carried on
with the Normans introduced not a few of their terms into
common conversation. Thus undermined, popular prejudice
England? What was the principal modification it had previously undergone ? Who
was the author of these changes ? For what did they pave the way ?
§ 27. By whom was England invaded 1066 A. d. ? What battle decided the fate
of the empire? What was its result ? How did the Conqueror endeavor to alienate
'the people from their ancient institutions ? In what were the youth instructed ? Wl-mt
was made the language of the courts? By what class were these attempts reaistoJ'
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 49
gradually became less violent. The superior versatility of the
language of their conquerors and its peculiar adaptedness to
poetry were soon acknowledged by the educated. The treas-ures
of the early ballad and romantic literature of Normandy
were eagerly sought for ; and, within a hundred years after
the Conquest, we find the people as willing to learn the Nor-man
tongue, and engraft its beauties on their own, as their
fathers had been opposed to speaking or even hearing it.
This willingness, however, extended only to a modification
of their vernacular ; the determination was still as strong and
unanimous as ever against allowing the introduction of Nor-man
French at the expense and to the exclusion of the latter.
To improve its constructions and enlarge its vocabulary would
be to increase its usefulness ; and for these purposes they
freely drew on the language of their conquerors. But the
latter was rendered odious by too many unpleasant associa-tions
to allow of its substitution for a tongue which the use
of centuries had rendered sacred in their eyes. Of effecting
this, the power of William and his successors was totally in-capable.
The people carried their point ; and within two
hundred years these very kings and nobles from across the
channel were compelled to learn the Saxon, at first so much
contemned, now converted into English by the important
changes just alluded, to, which commenced as early as the
middle of the twelfth -century. In 1362, the new language
thus formed was introduced into the courts and allowed to be
used in pleading ; all classes of society spoke it
; poets em-ployed
it as the vehicle of their choicest thoughts ; and Eng-lish
literature may be said to have had its origin.
Did they succeed in keeping their vernacular unalloyed ? How were Norman words
gradually introduced ? In what qualities did the educated Saxons find that the Nor-
Enan language surpassed their own ? What was the state of feeling among the Saxons
I oontury after the Conquest ? How far did this willingness extend ? For what pur-poses
did they draw on the language of their conquerors ? Did the kings or the people
Borry their point ? Two hundred years after the Conquest, what do we find ? Into
what was Saxon by that time converted ? In 1362 what took placj ? In what locol-tties
were these changes soonest e&cted ?
3
60 OEI&IN OF TEE ENGLISH LANGUAGB.
These changes, though covering in the kingdom at large a period of
two hundred years, were in some parts much sooner effected. The
greater the number and influence of the Norman inhabitants in any
given locality, the sooner did Anglo-Saxon prejudices give way and the
distinctive features of the French become blended with those of the
vernacular.
§ 28. Conversion of Anglo-Saxon into English.—Marks
of the successive changes to which allusion has been raade
are evident in the few extant writings of the twelfth and
the succeeding century. In the case of some of the produc-tions
of this transition period, critics have found it difficult to
decide whether they should be classed among the latest speci-mens
of Saxon, or the earliest of English, literature, bearing,
as they do, the characteristics of each ; they have, therefore,
introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which they apply to all
writings between 1150 and 1250 a. d. Passing over a few
works of minor importance, the Travels of Sir John Mande-ville,
written in 1356, may be called the first English book.
Wicliffe's Translation of the Bible followed twenty-seven
years afterwards, and did much towards fixing the unsettled
forms of the new language.
The English of these early times, however, differs much from that
of the present day. Even the poetry of Chaucer, who wrote in the lat-ter
part of the fourteenth century, cannot be understood without the
aid of a glossary. Our language has not, to be sure, since the JSTorman
invasion suffered any shock from the intermixture of conquerors, and
their dialects ; but its appearance is much changed in consequence, not
only of manifold simplifications in the spelling, but also of the disuse of
many Saxon terms (one fifth of those current in Alfred's time being now
obsolete), and the continual introduction of new words from the dead
languages, as weU as from the French, Italian, and Spanish. For scien-tific
terms resort has generally been had to the Greek ; and, as new dis-coveries
have been constantly making since the Middle Ages, the addi-tions
from this source have been considerable. Commerce has also
§ 28. In what writings have we marks of these successive changes ? What writings
ore classed as Semi-Saxon ? What may be called the first English book ? When was
tt written ? What work followed twenty-seven years afterwards ? How does this early
English compare with that of ihe present day ? What is said of Chaucer's poetry ?
Whence arises this difference ? What part of the 8ason words current in Alfred's time
ORIGIN OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 61
Widely extended ; and commodities formerly unknown have been intro.
duced into common use, retaining in most cases their foreign names.
Thus "we have obtained the words camphor, arsenic, and many others.
The changes and additions just mentioned, as well as a vaidety of modi-fieations
which are found to have affected, not only our own, but ako
every other modern tongue, have so altered the appearance of the later
English that a close examination is necessary to convince the reader of
ts identity with the language of Chaucer.
§ 29. Changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into
English.—The principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was
converted into English, were,
I. Modifications and contractions in the spelling of words.
II. The introduction of French terms, phrases, and idioms.
III. The use of less inversion and ellipsis, especially in
poetry.
IV. The omission of inflections or changes in the termination
of the noun, and substitution of prepositions to express
its relations to other words. This last-mentioned change
is the only one of sufficient importance to authorize us in
considering the new derivative as an independent tongue.
It is an alteration which time very often brings about
;
and itj, perhaps, to be attributed rather to the natural
efforts of the people to simplify their grammar, than to
the effects of the Norman Conquest or the new dialect
it introduced. Observation shows that this tendency
has by no means been confined to English. It seems to
be a universal principle, that, the further we go back in
the history of a given language, the more terminational
changes we find in its nouns and verbs, and the fewer
prepositions and auxiliaries.
are now ot)soIete ? Whence hare we obtained most of our scientific terms ? How have
we received the words camphor, arsenic, and many others ? What ia said of the
effect of these alterations and additions?
§ 29. Mention the foar principal changes by which Anglo-Saxon was converted into
English. Which of these is the most important ? How is it often brought about ? To
what is it attributable ? Is this tendency confined to the English language ? The
further we go back in the history of a tongue, what do we find ?
52 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
LESSON IX.
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 30. To recapitulate and enlarge on what lias been said
in the preceding lesson, it appears that our language, as it
now stands, is composed of the following elements :
—
i. Saxon.—Of the forty thousand words contained in our
fullest dictionaries, twenty-three thousand are from this source
"
as are, also, our chief peculiarities of construction and idiom.
Some of these it may be interesting to particularize. The in-flection
of our pronouns ; the terminations of the possessive
case and plural number, as well as of the second and third
person singular of verbs ; the syllables ei- and est, and the
words more and most, by which we form the comparative and
superlative of adjectives and adverbs ; the suffix hj (derived
from like), which enters into the formation of a large propor-tion
of our adverbs.—all these are derived from the Saxon.
As to the words we have received from it, they are those
which occur most frequently and are individually of the
greatest importance : such as the articles a, an, the ; all our
pronouns ; the adjectives oftenest used, especially such as are
irregularly compared ; the commonest adverbs of one syllable,
how, noiv, then, and the like ; nearly all of the numerous
irregular verbs, as well as the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will,
&c. ; and the prepositions and conjunctions, almost without
exception.
Irregular nouns, adjectives, and verbs, are in every language among
the oldest words, and are very likely to be those most used in common
conversation ; to which fact their deviation from regularity may often
§ 80. How many words are contained in our fullest dictionaries ? Of these, how
many are Saxon ? What terminations have we received from this source ? Which
of our words are Saxon ? Mention some of them. What is said of the irregular nouns,
adjectives, and verbs in every language ? What striking objects have received Saxon
Eames ? Whence come most of our abstract terms ? Whence, the sp«cifications under
tbem ? Give examples. What rich fund of words is almost entirely Saxon ? Mention
ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53
be traced. These, as we have seen, our Saxon ancestors gave us ; to
them, aLso, we owe the names of the striking objects which constantly
meet our view, of sun and moon, land and water, hill and dale. While,
moreover, we borrow fi'om the Latin or French most of our abstract
terms, the specifications classed under them are for the most part Saxon,
Thus Latin supplies us with the general term color ; but to Saxon we
are indebted for the particular varieties, white and black, blue and yel-low,
red and brown : from the former we get the comprehensive term to
T/iove ; from the latter, the different kinds of motion, walking, running^
leaping, springing, gliding, creeping, cr^awling, &c. Hence, too, the rich
and necessary fund of words by which we express our feelings and pas-sions
as well as the relations which call them forth. These emotions
the Saxons shared with all others of the human race, and the words
wl ich they employed in expressing them have come down to us almost
without alteration. To this class belong the words love and hate, hope
and fear, smile and tear, sigh and groan, weeping and laughter, father
and mother, man and wife, son and daughter. Our connnon business
terms, the language of the shop, the market, and the farm, have the
same origin. Saxon, therefore, besides dictating the laws and furnish-ing
the particles by which our words are connected, yields the most
available terms for expressing the feelings, describing the objects of
sense and imagination, and conveying the facts of every-day life.
2. Norman French,—From the time of the Conquest till
the days of Chaucer, a period of three hundred years, this
element played an important part in the formation of our
tongue. First introduced by royal authority as the language
of law, chivalry, and feudalism, and unwillingly received by
the masses, it finally found its way into their afi'ections, and
was largely drawn upon for words in whicli the Saxon vocabu-lary
was deficient. From this source it is estimated that at
least five thousand words were added. Besides covering the
abstractions and generalities of every-day life, they often con-vey
slight distinctions and delicate shades of thought. We
find them particularly useful, when we wish to express disap-some.
What other terms have the same origin ? What portion, then, of its syntas
and vocabulary does English owe to Saxon ?
Between what periods did Norman French play an important part in the formation
of our tongue ? How was it first introduced ? In process of time, how was it received
by the people ? How many words have we taken from this source ? What do they
convey with peculiar accuracy ? When do we find them particularly useful ? How is
this explained ?
54 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
probation without wounding the feelings of another. Tha
natural courtesy of the Normans led to the creation of a fund
of words applicable to this purpose, for which the energetic
and too often rough expressions of the Saxons wore totally un-euited.
3. Modern French.—From this offspring of the ancient
Norman our authors have, at different periods, taken many
useful words ; which, either with very slight changes in their
spelling or without any modification at all, have, after a time,
by common consent, become incorporated into the language.
A taste for French expressions as well as French opinions has-from
time to time prevailed in England, and of course led to
the introduction of many foreign terms from this source
;
whence, also, numerous additions have been made through the
medium of trade, many fabrics which owe their invention to
the artists of France having come into general use and re-tained
iheir foreign names.
4. ]^ATiN.—Under this head must be classed those ele-ments
which have come directly from the Latin, and not
through the medium of any other tongue. Between the two
classes it is not always easy to draw a dividing line, particu-larly
in the case of the later derivatives. The earliest addi-tiaos
from this source (if we except proper names and a few
military terms, introduced into the original vernacular of
Britain during the period of Boman supremacy, and thence
received and naturalized at a later date by the Saxons) were
ecclesiastical words, such as monk, saint, cloister, mass, and
the like, necessarily employed wherever the Church of Bome
carried its doctrines, institutions, and ritual. Next follow
the Latinisms introduced in the thirteenth century, at which
time a taste for classical studies began to revive in England
What is said of the additions from modern French ? Through what medium
baye they mostly been received ?
Into what two classes are the Latin elements of our language divided? Is it easy
to distinguish between them ? What additions were made from this source during the
period of Eoman supremacy ? What Latin terms were next introduced ? Give ex-amples.
WTiat Latinisms next followed ? Towards the close of the eighteenth cen-
ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55
as well as elsewhere. Thenceforth, as necessity required, oc-casional
additions were made from the same source, especially
by theological and scientific writers ; until, towards the close
of the eighteenth century, Johnson and his imitators, having
coined largely from Latin roots and naturalized a variety of
classical idioms, succeeded in making their high-sounding de-rivatives
fashionable, at the expense of the less pretending
Saxon.
It has been questioned by those who compare the simplicity of Ad-dison
with the pompousness of Hume and Gibbon, whether this whole-sale
latinizing was any improvement to our language and Hterature ; if,
however, it resulted in no other advantage, it has at least secured us an
array of synonymes (that is, words that have the same or a similar sig-nification)
unequalled by those of any other modern language.
5. Celtic.—Next in importance are the Celtic elements,
some of which were introduced into our language at or short-ly
after the period of its first formation, while others have
been added in modern times, either by antiquarians or in con-sequence
of intercourse with the Welsh and Irish. As exam-ples
of the latter, may be mentioned the words tartan^ plaid^
flannel^ &c. The former class may be arranged under two
subdivisions :
—
I. Those elements which came directly from the Celtio
itself; embracing a great number of geographical names,
such as Thames^ Kent^ &c., as well as a variety of com-mon
nouns in every-day use, among which are hran^
darn^flaw^ gruel^ mop, tackle^ &c.
II. Such as originated in the Celtic, yet were received into
English, not directly from that tongue, but through the
medium of Latin or Norman French, into which they
had previously found their way.
tary, what taste became fashionable ? How does the style of Addison compare with
that of Hume and Gibbon? What question has been raised with regard to this
wholesale latinizing ? What great advantage has resulted from it ?
What elements are next in importance ? When were the Celtic additions intro-duced?
What Is the first class into which the ancient elements are divided? Givo
examples. What, the second ? How have Celtic words found their way into English
to modem times ?
56 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
6. Greek.—To this language we are indebted largely foi
scientific terms, but little or none for words of every-day life
The elements thus derived are all of recent addition. If we
except the words phenomenon^ criterion^ automaton^ and a
few others, they have all been introduced within the last hun-dred
and fifty years. New discoveries of science having ren-dered
an enlargement of our technical nomenclature necessary,
recourse was had to the Greek as afi"ording the greatest ad-vantages
for this purpose. Hence our numerous words end-ing
in logy and grapky^ and their derivatives,
7. Miscellaneous Elements.—Under this head fall the
few isolated words added from time to time, through the
medium of business, or as occasion has required, from Eastern
and North American dialects, or the modern tongues of Eu-rope
not before alluded to.
Dr. Latham, in his " Handbook," p. 56, furnishes us with a variety
of examples :
—
Italian, virtuoso.
KussiAN, Czar.
Turkish, coffee, bashaw, scimitar.
Arabic, admiral, assassin, alchemy, alcohol, and a variety of words
beginning with the Arabian article al.
Persian, turban, caravan.
Hindoo, calico, chintz, curry, lac.
Malay, bantam, gamboge, rattan, sago.
Chinese, nankeen, tea, and its varieties, bohea, hyson, &c.
K American Indian, squaw, wigwam.
§ 31. From what has been stated, however, with regard
lo the numerical proportion of the elements composing our
language, no correct idea can be formed respecting their rela-
What terms do we owe to the Greek language? When were they introduced?
Within this period, what has called for an enlargement of our scientific vocabulary?
What terminations in English indicate Greek origin?
How have a variety of miscellaneous elements crept into our language? Give
examples from the Italian; Eussian; Turkish; Arabic; Persian; Hindoo; Malay;
Chinese ; North American Indian dialects.
§ 31. From what has been stated with regard to their number, can a correct idea be
formed of the relative importance of the elements that compose our language ? Why
CHARACTERISTICS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 57
tive importance. Some words, for instance, (and this is the
case with many of our Saxon derivatives) are constantly re-curring,
while the use of others is rare and limited to certain
styles or subjects. To determine what part of our language,
as commonly written, is really Saxon, various passages from
the authorized version of the Scriptures and from standard
writers of different eras have been analyzed. The result, as
given in Turner's Anglo-Saxons, shows that when the words
were classified under the languages from which they were re
spectively derived, more than four fifths of the whole were
found to be of Saxon origin. The individual passages com-pared
were found to differ ividely from each other as regards
their proportion of foreign elements. The translators of the
Bible wrote by far the purest Saxon, only ^V of tiieir words
being derived from other sources ; of Swift's words, ^ are nof
Saxon ; of Milton's, | ; of Shakspeare's, | ; of Spenser's
Addison's, and Thomson's, about I ; of Johnson's, | ; of
Pope's and Hume's, | ; of Gribbon's, much more than J,
LESSON X
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 32. Before proceeding to consider the different classes
of words, and the parts they respectively perform in a sen-teice,
we may with advantage look at our language as a whole,
and observe its leading characteristics.
Derived, as we have seen, from so many different sources,
not ? To arrive at a knowledge of this, what has been done ? What proportion of all
the words employed is found to be of Saxon origin ? Who are ascertained to have
wr'tten the purest Saxon? What proportion of their words is derived fi-om otheF
soTi-ces? Of Swift's words, what part is not Saxon? of Milton's? Shakspeare's?
Spenser's? Addison's, and Thomson's ? Johnson's? Pope's and Hume's ? Gibbon's?
§ 32. What follows from the fact that English has been derived from so many differ'
58 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH LAKGUAGB.
each of which has contributed some of its own peculiar fea«
tures, it naturally follows that English, like every other com-pounded
language, is full of irregularities. We must not ex-pect
entire consistency in its parts, or that complete analogy
of structure which is found in simpler tongues that have been
built on but one foundation. Our words, naturalized from
widely different dialects, " straggle," as Blair says, " asunder
from each other, and do not coalesce so naturally in the struc-ture
of a sentence as the words in the Greek and Rom'an
tongues." Our orthography is anomalous ; the same combi-nation
of letters may be pronounced in half a dozen different
ways : * and our syntactical constructions are so arbitrary that
it often perplexes the best grammarians to account for them.
We have introduced foreign idioms and modes of construc-tion
; and our sentences too often look like patchwork, com-posed
of divers pieces, handsome enough in themselves, but
of such different colors and qualities that the eye cannot help
being struck with the variety in passing from one to another.
Composite languages, however, have advantages as well as
drawbacks. The very variety alluded to above is preferable to
sameness, and often imparts vivacity to what might otherwise
seem monotonous and dull. Such tongues, moreover, are gener-ally
enriched with copious vocabularies ; and particularly is this
true of English, whose abundance of historical, political, moral,
and philosophical terms, leaves little to be desired by the wri-ter.
Nor are we less amply provided with distinct and pecu-liar
poetical terms. With us poetry differs from prose, not
only in having a certain arrangement of syllables and feet, but
* For example, ough in through, though, cough, tough, lough, hie-fimigh,
plough.
ont sources? Wbat mustwc not expect? What says Blair respecting our -words
?
What is the character of our orthography ? Give an example. What is said of our
sentences ?
What advantage, on the other hand, do composite languages possess ? With what
we such tongues generally enriched? With what kind of terms are we amply pro-vided
? In English, how does poetry differ from prose ? Whose writings prove this?
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59
in tlie very words that compose it ; so mncli so that the wri-tings
of Ossian, though they have neither rhyme nor metre,
are classed by many among poems. In this respect we enjoy
a great advantage over the French, whose poetry, without
rhyme, would be hardly distinguishable from their prose ; and
with whom, as a consequence, blank verse is never attempted.
For this richness we are indebted to the fact that our language,
originally made up from several others, has borrowed from
them all ; and thus has supplied from one what was wanting
in another, and even in some cases appropriated duplicate
terms and expressions to denote the same thing. These are of
great use to the writer in every department of composition,
enabling him to diversify his style and avoid unpleasant repe-titions.
§ 33. Every language is supposed to take, in a greater or
less degree, its predominant tone from the character of the
people that speak it. Though it cannot, of course, exactly
represent their customs, manners, powers of mind, and habits
of thought, yet it must necessarily be in some measure, if ever
so little, affected by their national characteristics. The
vivacity of the French, the thoughtfuln
Intellectual Underpinnings of the American Civil War
