Tactical manual of aerial bombardment

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AIR SERVICE INFORMA - ON CIRCULAR
( H E AVI !== R - THAN -Al R )
PUBLISHED BY THE CHIEF OF AIR SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Vol. II December 24, 1920 No. 140
TACTICAL MANUAL OF AERIAL
· BOMBARDMENT
Prepared by Training and Operations Group.
Office Chief of Air Service
THE FOLLOWING IS PUBLISHED FOR INFORMATION ONLY. THE VIEWS
EXPRESSED ARE NOT NECESSARILY THOSE OF THE CHIEF OF
AIR SERVICE. NOTHING HEREIN IS TO BE CONSTRUED AS AN ORDER
OR DIRECTION WITH WHICH STRICT COMPLIANCE IS NECESSARY
/
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICJ;.
1920
\
Ralph Brown Draughon
LIBRARY
APR O 3 2013
Non-Depoitory
Auburn University
CONTENTS.
Part 1.- DAY BOM~ARD1YIENT.
Page.
Introduction ..... .... . ... .. .. . . . ..... .. ..... .. .. . 3 Chapter VI- Group organization . ... . .. . . . ... . . . .
Chapter I- Information ............ . .... . ...... . 3 Chapter VII- Squadron organization .... . . . . . ... . .
Chapter II- Liaison .......................... .. . 3 Chapter VIII- Preliminary training at the front . . .
Chapter III- Security . . . ...... .. .... . .. .. ... ... . . 4 Chapter IX- Raids . . .. . ... . ... ... . . . . ......... .
Chapter IV- Orders . ... . .. . .. . . . . .. . ........ . ... . 4 Chapter X-Combat ... . .. .. . . . . . ...... . ... . ... .. .
Chapter V-Marches and convoys ......... . .... . . 4
Part 11.- NIGHT BOMBARDMENT.
Introduction . . ........... . ... . . .. . . ............. .
Chapter I - General principles ... . .. . . .. ... .. ... .
Chapter II- Night bombardment airdromes .. . .... .
13 1 Chapter III- Preliminary training at front .. ..... .
13 Chapter IV- Raid_s .. . . . ... . .. · ·:·: . . . . ....... . . . .
13 Chapter V-Carryrng out of a m1ss10n . . . .. . . . . ... .
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TA CTI CAL MANUAL OF AERIAL ~OMBARDMENT.
PART l.-DAY BOMBARDMENT.
INTRODUCTION.
OBJECT OF DAY BOMBARDMENT.
The primary object of bombing operations is the destruc-·
tion of the materiel and personnel of the enemy. The
secondary object is reconnaissance of enemy movements
in the air and on the ground. The effect of destroying the
enemy's· D;J.ateriel and personnel is not commensurate with
the effect gained by day bombardment in weakening the
morale of troops and civilians in the bombed areas. The
ratio of the effect of lowering the enemy's morale over
that of destruction is estimated as 20 to 1.
CHAPTER I.
· INFORMATION.
Information of the enemy and our own ground forces is
essential to the proper tactical operations of a day bom­bardment
unit. The collection and ·preparation of this
information for distribution to the smaller units of his com­mand
is the duty of the Air Service commander. Informa­tion
properly circulated to bombardment units ha-s an im­portant
effect upon the morale of the personnel. This is
the only method by which units far from the battlefield
can have brought home to them the actual situations at
the front. Unless the possibilities of day bombardment are
made clear it is impossible to get the maximum efficiency
from the pilots and observers.
Every unit headquarters will be supplied by the Army
Air Service commander with:
(a) A map showing the location of all enemy airdromes.
This map will indicate whether or not the airdromes are
occupied, and will show the quantity and kind of air·
forces present.
(b) A map showing the location and kind of all enemy
antiaircraft artillery, which will be kept as near up to
date as possible.
(c) A map showing the existing and probable locations
of all enemy divisions, both in the line and reserve. The
map will be prepared from information furnished by the
. second section of the General Staff. (G-2.)
(d) A map showing the location of all airdromes in the
sector of the Army Air Service commander, the corps
and divisional sector boundaries of all units in line, the
location of our antiaircraft artillery units, balloons, and
other Air Service units.
(e) Silhouettes and photogr,iphs of all known types
of enemy airplanes. These should be posted in the
·operations rooms and in the mess hall and quarters of the
flying personnel.
(j) A diagram of telephonic liaison in the army area.
(g) A map showing the location of heavy and rlilroad
artillery units and their targets.
The charts, diagrams, and maps will be supplemented
with_:
I (a) Army summaries of intelligence prepared by G-2.
These will be circulated to be accessible to every pilot
and observer.
(b) Air Service summaries of intelligence prepared in
the headquarters of the Air Service commander. These
will cover all subjects relat:ing to the enemy air service,
especially the quantities apd types of his airplanes, and
his methods of employing them in aerial warfare. It is
the duty of every operations officer to make h.'"Ilown to his
flying personnel all the experiences that other pilots and
observers have had over the lines.
CHAPTER II.
· LIAISON.
Success of day bombardment depends in a large meas­ure
upon a system of well-established liaison. The liaison
must be such that it guarantees a rapid transmission of
information and orders. A comprehension of the entire
situation at the moment has a decided effect upon the
success of bombardment operations. In order that
bombing raids may be made most effective and with a
minimum of losses, a close liaison with the front must be
maintained. Accurate knowledge of the enemy's aerial
activity at the time is the most important factor in decid­ing
upon the tactics to be employed in executing the raids,
the route to be followed, and the altitude from which the
objective will. be bombed. The liaison should be so
perfected that each group commander can be informed
without delay of the location, number, altitude, direction
of flight, and types of enemy airplanes approaching our
front lines. This liaison will lie established:
(a) By direct telephonic communications with anti-aircraft
artillery observation posts. 1
(b) By wire with the radiogoneometric stations.
(c) By wire with the line of observation balloons.
The telep~one communications from group to wing
and to the Army Air Service commander should be direct.
The internal liaison from"group headquarters to the several
squadrons ' should be perfect. The group operations
officer should be able to communicate without delay with
all squadron operations officers and with the flying field
and alert ten ts.
Too much emphasis can not be placed upon the impor­tance
of the exchange of visits between the commanding
officers of the Air Service units. This applies especially
to day bombardment and pursuit aviation. Without these
exchanges of visits it is impossible to arrive at that close
cooperation so necessary between these two branches.
Personal visits between officers of all branches of aviation
and the officers of infantry, artillery, antiaircraft artillery,
and balloon sections are the best means of establishing a
feeling of understanding and sympathy between the
various arms of the service. This understanding is neces­sary
to perfect an efficient system of liaison upon the
battle field.
19051-20 (3)
4
OHAPT ER III.
SECURITY.
Security embraces all measures taken by a command to
protect itself from annoyance, observation. surprise, and
attack by the enemy. The protection of day bombard­ment
naturally falls under combat and will be t reated
under that h ead. Under security will be discussed only
those measures taken by the commanding officer for the
protection of his airclrome.
The selection of an airclrome depends upon several
circumstances, such as accessibility, distance from the
front, size, security, and sh el ter. In clay bombardment
it is essential to select a large fi,elcl. Airplanes loaded
with bombs require a long runway to take-off. As they
climb slowly they must have considerable distance in
which to attain suffi cient altitude to clear the natural
obstacles which generally surround a field. The n ecessity,
especially during an offensive, to take-off on short notice,
and to take up formation quickly, requires the squadrons
to leave Ll1e ground together. Therefore, a large airdrom"
is absolu tely essen tial for the effiriency of the gr<'11 r
Day bombardment airdromes as a general rule are situ­ated
at 35 kilomet ers from the front lines that the airplanes
may attain their bombing alt itude without making un­necessary
detours before crossing the lines. Working
within the limits above laid clown the selection of an air­drome,
as regards security, should be made with a con­sideration
of the following principles:
It should be away from all landmarks which are visible
at night, such as streams, intersecting highways, and large
cities. An airdrome situated alongside a forest affords
great security, as the hangars and buildings can be con··
cealed among the trees. Care should be .taken to place
the hangars on a well-defended edge of the forest. The
day bombardment fields at Amanty and Maulan were
good examples of forest security. On many occasions
enemy night bombers could be heard circling the forest,
but the airdromes were never hit by even stray bombs.
These a.i.rdromes were also good examples of camouflaging
material. The color of the hangars and buildings blended
so well with the colors of the forests that it was difficult
to locate either airdrome even in daylight, especially if
the clouds were low and the known landmarks· in the
vicinity hidden. The hangars should be spaced at least
100 meters apart that the maximum effect of one bomb
would be one hangar. All hangars and buildings should
be camouflaged to blend with the surrounding color. As
most night.raiders carry incendiary bom):ls, great care must
b~ taken in choosing camouflage material and in the
disposition of inflammables. The gasoline stores must be
placed a safe distance from the hangars or other likely
targets.
The distance of clay bombardment airdromes from the
front usually is a sufficient safeguard against daylight
raids. But it is always well to organize a system of de­fense
against low-flying enemy airplanes. This defense
usually consists of machine-gun emplacements around
the airdrome so plaecd that the enemy airplanes will have
to pass through a barrage before reaching a bombing
position over the hangars. At times the exigencies of the
service make it necessary for day bombardment airclromes
t-0 be placed close to the front. On the front from Dun­kirk
to Amiens the allies were forced by the German
offensive to operate in a constricted area. The day bom­bardmen
t was at times within 15 kilometers of the front
lines. When airdromes are close to the front, earthworks
and bombproof ~helters must be erected around quarters
as protection for the personnel against air raids and shell
fire.
Each group should be mobile and should have ample
transportation facilities to move all its material in case of
a general retreat. Lack of transportation has occasioned
great losses in materiel on the western front. Units oper­ating
near the line should have their supplies of spare
parts packed in boxes with hinged doors, to be loaded on
trucks at the first alarm. The offices should be in trail .,rs
so that all the records can be carried away. Orde1,s cover­ing
emergencies should be prepared in advance and under­stood
by those responsible for carrying them into effect.
,
CHAPTER I V.
ORDERS.
The principles laid down in Field Service Regulations
for the issuance of orders apply to the issuance of orders
for the Air Service.
CHAPTER V.
MARCHES AND CONVOYS.
(a) Wings, or larger units, will move by groups.
(b) The removal of a day bombardment group from one
field to another has primarily three phases.
1. Preparation for the move.
2. The move.
3. Arrival at the new airdrome and the preparation
until day of attack.
PREPARATION FOR THE MOVE.
(a) As accuracy is of paramount importance in any
move, t he group commanders will be given his n ew loca­tion
and all necessary information concerning it with in­structions
to make all arrangements to move- but to carry
on his preparations fully with only the date, hom and
location omitted.
(b) He will, therefore, before flying to the new location,
immediately call a meeting of squadron commanders, park
commanders, supply, transportation, radio, engineering,
and any other officers who in his opinion are necessary to
contribute to the working out of the operation, which must
be planned with all the forethought possible. In this
meeting all questions of moment will be discussed, which
will include:
1. Transportation.
2. Supplies---continuance of incoming.
3. Rations for at least "JO clays from the present rail­h
ead.
4. Materiel left on the field for transport to the rear,
to be placed in charge of an officer sent from
the rear for that purpose.
5. Billeting -to be properly adjusted with the local
authorities before leaving.
6. Pulling down existing intercamp lines of com­munication
that have been installed by the
group.
7. Camp thoroughly policed before leaving, etc.
(c) The group commander will then make an aerial
reconnaissance to the new airdrome with the object of
returning with further particulars of importance to the
move in general .
1. He will establish the rou te by which pilots will
fly, noting the important landmarks, airdromes,
gas stations, headquarters to notify if forced to
land on one side or the other of given p oints
''en route .'' "
2. Ile will have inspected the new fi eld and made
notes on the landing fac ilities.
3. The work of the construction squadron engaged
in the preparation of the fi eld and upon the
construction of barracks, hangars, etc.
4. The line of communication to ou tside head­quarters.
5. The disposition of the hangars on the field and
which squadrons will occupy them.
6. The new group headquarters and the most suit-able
location.
7. :\Jen 's quarters and messes.
8. Officers' quarters and messes.
9. And in general ii,n idea of the neighboring u nits
and in which way they migh t be of assistance
to his command in moving in.
( d) Upon returning to the old field he will see that all
these details are passed on to the squadron commanders
and to those affec t.eel .
THE MOVE.
(a) Moving orders will be received from the wing or the
Chief of Air Service, depending upon the tactical use to be
made of the unit and will be acknowl edged by notifying
the h eadquarters as soon as the echelons have started or
are all en route.
(b) The mo,·e will be made in four echelons, by squad-rons:
1. Advance echelon.
2. Main echelon .
3. Flying ech elon.
4. Rear echelon .
The advance ech elon will be in charge of a competent
officer and will be ligh t, co~1Sisting only of the personnel
necessary to start in tercamp communication by telephone
to establish squadron ope.rations, to locate source of suppl y,
fuel, straw, water, etc .. and to set up ki tchens to take <'are
of arrivals until incoming u nits are settled . In regard to
the above, the p ark commander will immediately get in
touch with the air depot of the Army or its ad vanced fi eld
to insure this supply, determining at the same time the
quantity of airplanes on hand, spare p ar ts, etc ., that may
be called upon for immediate use. Also get in touch with
parks of adjoining armies which may be used as an aux­iliary
supply .
The main ech elon will leave if possible the next day and
will consist of all nonflying personnel of the group, less the
necessary personnel from squadrons and h eadquarters
detachment, required to provide meals, start airplanes,
make minor repairs on those airplanes which ma~· be ou t
of commission, at tend to bill eting, p olicing, etc. All
material that can be taken will accompany this echelon,
which will leave camp at the designated hour and will
follow the route according to i tinerary.
The following rules and regulations are to be observed
on the march :
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(a) All stops for meals or other reasons, other than those
caused by emergen cy, will be regulated on sch edule ord er
issued wh en moving order has been received , d esignating
time of depart ure and route.
(b) Speed of train will be b etween JO and 12 miles per
hour, regulated by acting first sergeant at h ead of t rain in
side car.
(c) In towns and viUages distance between t ranspor ta­tion
will be 30 feet, •every place else 200 feet.
(d) The t rain will never stop wi thin a radius of 1 mile
of any town or village.
(e) Acting fast sergeant may gran t an enlisted man per­mission
to enter a town, b ut only for a very good reason.
(J) No enlisted men will d esc;end from trucks for any
reason whatsoever without permission from the non com­missioned
officer in charge of the trn ck.
(g) Each junior non commission ed officer will be in close
relation wi th his senior non commission ed officer and pri­vates,
and is directly respo~sible to his immediate superior
for t he discipline and work of his men.
(h) When train is moving, i f cer taiJ1 t rucks are lagging
pu t th em at the h ead of t he t rain.
(i) Trailers may be shi fted at noon stops or at even.ing
stops, provided that such changes will assist in maintaining
scl1 edule.
(j) Chauffeurs will work in d etails to which t rucks are
assigned and will be h eld responsible t hat their trucks ha.Ye
extra supply of gas.
(k) Non commissioned offi cer in charge of each section
will be responsible to the acting fi rst sergeant for the load­ing
and unloading and placing of equipment assigned to
his section. He will also be r esponsible for the discipline
of the men assigned to his section while en route and until
the squadron 1s set tled in i ts n ew quar ters.
The Hying echelon will consist of all servi ceable ma­chines,
with their pilots. This pa1ty will leave the field
a fter the advance ech elon has reach ed i ts n ew station to
receive the airpl an es. Fligh t formations will be used and
each pilot before leaving the ground will be given the
n ecessary information for making the t rip. On arrival at
the new station each pilot will r eport to the commander of
the advance echelon .
The rear echelon will consist of the necessary personnel
required to provide meals, start airplanes, make minor re­pairs
on these airplan es which may be out of commission,
attend to billeting, policing, materiel left on the field for
transport to the r ear, empty gas co.n tainers, etc. , but will
terminate th eil· work as quickly as possibl e, making sure
that the camp is th oroughly policed and in the proper
shape to be taken over by rear units or a n ew organization ,
and leaving a proper guard for the camp should t he in­coming
u~its be d elayed or th e local au thorities be unable
to furnish the proper protection .
I t is most important that these ech elons be properly
offi cered to handle any emergencies that might arise and
th at ·the move be conducted according to one prescribed
ro ute with a sch edule of arriving and d eparting times .for
the main stopping points '· en route."
Officers h eading t hese ech elons will be assisted by
anoth er officer and side car, who will bring up the rear and
noti fy th e h ead of the convoy o[ any breakdowns. They
will also be posted on all traffic rul es for convoys, see that
all rules of the road are observed , and in entering congested
areas will make sure that no oth er moving units h av<;:
priority of movemen t.
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All drivers will be supplied with maps and an itinerary
of the move in case of breakdowns.
Each echelon will depart with 10 days' rations.
A medical officer will accompany each echelon.
Arrival at the new field and preparation until the day
of the attack. As soon as the group has arrived and a
hurried inspection has shown that things are progressing
nicely, the group commander will :
(a) Report the arrival in person to the Wing or C. A. S.
headquarters, as the case may be.
(b) Ascertain the location of all units with which he will
be expected to keep in liaison.
(c) Dispatch the radio and searchlight officers to estab­lish
relation with antiaircraft batteries, balloon locations,
h~adquarters of adjoining army units, corps observation
wing, groups, other pursuit groups- in short, developing
all sources of information which will materially assist in
the efficient functioning of the group as well as develop­ing
relations which will include the personal touch _so
essential to cooperation.
(d) See that all lines from outside sources as well as the
inuercommunicating telephone systems are speedily in­stalled,
including radio and searchlight installations.
(e) Make sure that the operations office of the .group is
establishing itself with all scale maps necessary, informa­tion
about existing lines, locations of allied and enemy
airdromes, antiaircraft batteries, balloon locations, search­light
locations, etc., and the proper ho~sing of the radio
and power equipment. '
(!) Make arrangements for an aerial target, preferably a
small lake at which the pilots may commence at once to
test their guns.
(g) Visit personally the staff officers of the Corps Air
Service Wing of the Army to which attached; corps ob­servation
group, other pursuit groups with whom patrols
will be arranged and units working with the army opera­tion
on the right or left, etc.
Independent squadrons will move as above, except
that the aerial reconnaissance of the new station and other
. details of the group commander's duty will be performed
by the squadron commander.
An independent flight will generally move in only three
echelons- the advanced echelon, the flying echelon, and
the rear echelon. The main body of the flight may travel
with either the advance. or rear parties, depending on cir­cumstances.
The flight commander will make the same
arrangements a-s the group or squadron commander in the
moves discussed above. ·
CHAPTER VI.
GROUP ORGANIZATION.
Group commander.
Group operations officer assistant.
Group adjutant.
Group armament officer.
Group supply officer.
Group instrument officer.
Group radio officer.
Group photographic officer.
Group officer in charge of flying field (detail ).
Group police officer.
Group surgeon.
Group transportation officer.
-·
The efficiency of a group depends primarily upon the
or!!'anization of its commissioned personnel. The princi­pal
duties of the group officers are here designated in order
of importance.
GROUP COMMANDER.
The group commander has all the administrative duties
of a post commander. He is responsible for the operations
of his group, the orders for which he receives from the
G-3 Army through the Army Air Service commander. In
compliance with these operation orders he issues orders,
usually verbal, to his squadron-commanders for the execu­tion
of the designated missfons. Unless specifically cov­ered
in orders from higher authority the group commander's
orders cover the following essentials:
(a) The number of formations and the number of air­planes
in each.
(b) The types and weights of projectiles to be used.
(c) The time of departure, the order of departure of each
formation, the route, altitude, and time of anival at
objective. The duties of the group commander should be
so coordinated that the minimum amount of time will be
spent in the office. It is essential for him to keep in
personal touch with all his squadron commanders, and -to
create a feeling of sympathy with all his flying personnel.
Fli"ht commanders and leading observers should feel at
lib:rty to make sugge:3tions. to him regard~g changes in
the execution of raids, which is possible only 1f he adopts an
attitude of sympathy toward the elements of his com­mand.
He must make frequent visits to group com­manders.,
of the other branches of aviation, especially those
of pursuit groups, as such conferences are the surest means
o[ acquiring cooperation in aviation as a whole, and of
putting into effect in his-group the best methods used by
all the others. It is his duty to instruct his squadron com­manders
fully regarding the parts their respect~ve squad­rons
will take in the raids. He inust be a flymg officer,
and should participate in such raids as his duties will
permit. It is absolutely essential for him to_p_artici_Pate in
enough over-the-lines duty to become familiar with the
actual execution of raids. With the development of the
wireless telephone he will be able to direct the execution
of a bombing raid from a point of vantage impossible to a
formation leader.
OPERATIONS OFFiCER.
The operations officer will carry out the will of the group
commander much .the same as an adjutant does that of a
post commander. He should be ch osen for his execut~ve
ability, preferably a leading observer who has !~ad con~1d­erable
experience over the lines. He will have immediate
supervision· of group operations. I't is h.is duty:
(a) To.compile and keep available for the group_ com­mander
and flying personnel all information of value 111 the
preparation of bombing raids.
(b) To keep an indexed file of photographs, and a s~pply
of maps for the pilots and observers. He will post m the
operations room a map of the sector (1 to 80,000 or 1 to
50,000 scales), in which the group is operating, also _a map
(1 ·to 200,000) showing the lines of the ent~·e front with the
chan"es as they occur. For the instruction of the flymg
perso~:mel he will post maps upon _whic~.are indicate~ th e
location of all antiaircraft batteries, audromes, artillery
positions, hospitals and balloons, both our own and those
of the enemy.
(c) To post on a bulletin board all orders and communi­cations,
and all bulletins of the Army, Army corps and
divi3ions, which may be of interest to pilots and observers
of t:ie group.
(d) To transmit all information obtained from squadron
operations officers to the Army Air Service commander,
and to file the raid reports of each squadron with the
records of the group.
(e) To supervise the work of the group photographic offi­cer,
to see that all possible photographs of the raids are
taken and proper distribution of the prints made.
(f) To supervise the work of group pilot and observer
detailed to instruct new pilots and observers in the theory
and practice of bombing.
(g) To instruct selected officers in the duties of the opera­tions
office, to supply operations officers to new sq uaclrons.
(h) To post silhouettes of all types of our own and enemy
airplanes in places where they can be studied by all pilots
and observers.
(-i) To keep in touch with the meteorological stations,
and to post at least twice daily the r"eports on weather
and air conditions.
The group operations officer should keep intelligence
charts showing all the bombing objectives, and mark daily
on duplicate copies' the bombardments effected. He
should keep up to date all information of the number and
types of enemy aircraft in the sector, their air tactics, and
the best methods to combat them. He is responsible for
the correct interpretations of the photographs taken by the
group and for utilizing the information thus obtained. He
is further responsible for the establisliing and maintenance
of internal liaison, liaison with G-2 Army, Army Air
Service commander, and all the pursuit wings and other
groups.
ARMAMENT OFFICER.
The duties of the group armament officer are :
(a) To exercise general supervision over the entire
armament of the group.
(b) To advise the group commander on the test types of
bombs available for a particular purpose.
(c) To maintain a close liaison wi th the ordnapce depart­ment
that the squadrons may obtain, at the earliest date,
any improvements in bombs, ammunition. guns or armor.
(d) To maintain a personal liaison with the armament
officers of all aviation units, and to take advantage of the
improvements evolved by them.
(e) To advise the supply officer of the needs of the group
in armament, and see that requisitions are made out to
supply them.
The duties of the armamerit officer are very important
in the group. He is responsible for the storing and care of
explosives, and for the protection of the airplanes against
incendiary bullets in combat. He should Le an officer of
great initiative as most of the in1provements in armament
. will be developed from suggestions made by him to the
ordnance department. Nearly all real and effective
improvements result from experience gained at the front.
• SUPPLY OFFICER.
The main duty of the group supply officer is to keep on
hand an adequate but not an over supply of spare parts.
Enough spare parts is necessary to permit the group to
7
operate at maximum efficiency; an over supply decreases
the mo'.)ility of the unit when ordered to move. It
req uires a constant study of the spare parts used by the
group to estimate the amount necessary. To prevent an
over accumulation of spare parts the group supply officer
must supervise the work of the squadron supply officers,
and issue spare parts to the squadron only when actually
needed for p articular repairs. By personal visits to the
parks he can learn what supplies are on hand , and what
expected , and thus avoid submitting many useless
requisitions.
INSTRUMENT OFFICER.
'The cl uties of the instrument officer are :
(a) To keep in adjustment all delicate instruments used
in bombing.
(b) To keep up to elate information on the manufacture
and improvement of such instruments.
(c) To recommend improvements in the instruments,
and requisition new or :improved types.
RADIO OFFICER.
The duties of the group radio officer are :
(a) To supervise the installation and testing of all radio
equipment.
(b) To install and test all wireless telephones.
(c) To operate the radio station.
(d) To carry out orders from the group operations officer
in establishing liason with all other r1dio st1tio:is at the
front.
PHOTOGRAPHIC OFFICER.
The duties of the group photographic officer are:
(a) To command the photograph section.
(b) To supervise the care and installation in the air­planes
of all the 9ameras.
(c) To see that all plates are properly developed and
prints made.
(d) To see that all prints are properly mark~d.
(e) To make the correct interpretations of the photo­graphs.
(f) To see ~hat the observers are efficient .in the manipu­lation
of the cameras.
(g) To collect all the cameras aUer a raid , and to assume
responsitility for the plates exposed by the observers.
OFFICER IN CHARGE OF FLYING FIELD.
The officer in charge of the flying. field is responsible for
discipline on the field .. :!Iis duties include the following :
(a) That pilots comply strictly with the rules for taking
off and landing, and for piloting while in the air.
(b) That the sleeves are properly placed and working
all the time.
(c) That the landing T is always out in the daytime to
indicate exactly the direction of the wind.
(d) That flares and landing lights are ready and properly
placed to aid airplanes la)lcling after nigh t has fallen.
(e) That all wrecked airplanes are removed from the
airdrorp.e without delay. .
(j ) To superintend the maintenance of the terrain of the
airdrome that the field be in the best possible condition
for airplanes to take-off and land.
(g) To see that airplanes parked outside the hangars
are properly aligned.
8
The officer in charge of the flying field has a very impor­tant
bearing on the proper functioning of the group. :!Iis
discipline must be very strict. Many infractions of the
field rules are made by pilots returning from a raid in
which the airplanes haYe suffered from antiaircraft or
enemy airplane attacks. The officer in charge of the fl ying
field must i·eport every breach of discipline to the group
commander. There is a tendency for the group comman-
. der to overlook breach,es of discipline when there has been
a severe combat, but the field officer must enforce the
flying rules to safeguard against accidents. The officer in
ch arge of the flying field also assumes command of t he
ground targets for aerial gunner . :!Ie should see that the
targets are properly placed . and danger flags sent up
d uring practice.
POLICE OFFICER.
The police officer can be given the odd jobs which do
not seem important, but which must be done for the
proper maintenance of the group, wh en operating against
the enemy.
It is his duty:
(a ) To see that the camp is kept cleari.
(b) To see that all oil, gasoline drums, and oth er mate­rial
which can not be sheltered are properly placed and
neatly arranged .
(c) To see that necessary walks are la.id out and mai n­tained.
(d) To take proper precautions to protect the camp
:,igainst fire, and to see that fire-fighting facilities are
maintained.
( e) To see that. the enlisted persmrnel use the latrines
ordered by the surgeon, and wh en a group occupies an
airdrome temporarily i t is difficu lt to make the enlistee!
personnel observe the above regulation.
(f) To see that an airdrome when evocnated is left,iB
proper condi tion .
SURGEON.
The surg~on cares for the h ealth and sanitation of the
group. Close supervi;ion of the group surgeon by the
group commander is necessary. :!Ie should have a com­fortable
b uilding as a hospi tal in which to treat flying
personnel stu'fering from .only temporary ailments. There
is a tendency on the part of most group surgeons to evacu­ate
pilots and observers for a month or more for slight
indispositions which could be cured in three days at the
group hospital.
The group surgeon will see that a medical officer is on
d uty during flying hours, and an amb ulance with a driver
on the field .
GROUP TRANSPORTATION OFFICER .
The p rincipal duty of the group transportation officer
is the earn of all transportation .
(a) :!Ic will make requisition on the group supply officer
for all t ransportation and spare parts needed .
(b) :!Ie will supervise the employment of the transporta­tion
in all marches and convoys.
(c) He will see that - his ch auffeurs are properly in­structed
in all traffic regulations.
( d) He will see that his enlisted personnel is properly
instructed in the care and upkeep of all motor vehicles.
(e) He will see that no transportation is driven from the
park that is not in proper condi tion.
(!) He will be directly under the supervision of the
group commander, and will assign no t ransportation wi th­out
his consent.
GROUP ADJUTANT.
The group adjutan t will carry our the adininistrative
duties of the group and will bear the same relation to the
group command.er that the adjutant of a post does to the
post commander .
CHAPTER VII.
THE SQUADRON.
Squadron commander.
Adjutant .
Operations _officer.
Armament officer.
Engin eer officer.
Supply officer.
SQUADRON COMMANDER .
The squadron commander is resp onsible for the opera­t
ions of his squadron. He s h ould be a n atural leader of
men . His squadron will have no more initiative than he
personally sh ows, nor will the morale of his command be
higher than his own. He must be a flying officer and must
so perfect his organization as to have time to lead frequen t
raids. His operations officer must be capable of looking
aft er the preparation of raids. Squadron commanders
should be chosen trom the best fl ight leaders gifted with
execut ive ability. His more specific ~uties are-
(a) To issue orders n ecessary for the execution of Inis­sions.
(b) To give special instruction to his fligh t leaders on
points not covered by t he operations officer.
(c) To give personal i nstruction to his fl ying personnel
on the tactics employed in the execution of missions.
( d) To acq uire sufficient intimacy wi th his flying officers
to enable him to judiciously select pilots and observers
for special Inissions. 1
ADJ UTANT.
To the adjutant falls the administrative duties of the
squadron.
OP ER ATIONS OFfICER.
The dut ies of operations officer include-
( a) To compile and keep available for t he squadron
commander and fl ying personnel all info rmation of value
in t he p reparation of missions.
(b) To keep an ind exed fi le of photographs and a supply
of maps for the pilots and observers. He will post in the
operations room a map of the sector (1 to 80,000 or 1 to
50,000 scale) in which the squadron is opera ting, also a
map (1 to 200,000) showing the lines of the entire front
wi th t he changes as they occur. For the i nstruction of the
fl ying personnel he will post maps upon w~ich are indi­cated
the location of all antiaircraft batteries, airclromes,
artillery posi tions, hospitals, and balloons, both our own
and those of the enemy.
(c) To post on a b ulletin board all orders and communi ­cations
and all bulletins of the Arl\ly, Army corps, or
divisions which may be of interest to pilots and observers
of the squad ron.
(d) To post silhouettes of all types of our own and enemy
airplanes in places where they can be studied by pilots
and observers.
(e) To instruct selected officers in the duties of the
squadron operations officer.
(f) To make proper preparations for all the 1TliBsions.
(g) To compile all in formation submitted by pilots and
observers returning from a raid and make written report
of same to group operations officer.
(h) To see that the orders of the squadron commander
a.re transmitted to the flying personnel.
(i) To maintain an operations room similar to that of the
group operations officer.
ORDNANCE OFFICEU.
The ordnance officer is under the supervision of the
group armament officer and is responsible for the arma­ment
of the squadron. His duties are:
(a) To test and calibrate all ammunition.
(b) To supervise t he care of all machine guns.
(c) To synchronize all machine guns mounted to shoot
t hrough the propeller and to adjust all sights.
(d) To supervise placing the bombs on all airplaneE
scheduled for raids.
(e) To see that all bomb sights and bomb racks function
properly.
(f) To test~all pyrotechnics.
(g) To care for all t he explosives in the squadron.
(h) To see that all machine guns mounted for a raid
function properly.
E~GINEF)R OFFICE R.
The engineer officer has supervision of all the airplanes,
spare partJ, and the equipment and repair shops. His
duties are:
To supervise the overhauling of all engines and the
aligning of all airplanes and to make all necessary repairs.
SUPPLY OFFICER.
The duties of the squadron supply officer are:
(a) To take charge of squachon stores and supplies.
(b) To make necessary requisitions to the grotip supply
officer for supplies needed in the operations of the
squadron.
OH.APTER VIII.
PRELIMINARY TRAINING AT THE FRONT.
9
No matter how thorough t he course of training given at
the instruction centers, no bombardment unit is prepared
to begin actual operations against the enemy when it
arrives at the front. The knowledge t hat the enemy is
but 20 minutes 'away brings home to t he pilots and ob­servers
the realities of war. F lying behind t he lines and
a short review of the things they have learned at training
schools soon impress them with these realities and lead to
rapid and real preparation for,work over the lines.
The pilots and observers will be given a review of their
theoretical course of instruction to ascertain their fitness
for further service. If their previous training is found to
b'e sufficient, they will be taught from maps the exact
location of. the lines and all the topographical featmes of
the sector. . Special attention will be directed to promi­nent
landmarks. They will acquaint themselves >\i.th the
positions of all our troops, antiaircraft batteries, as well as
those of the enemy. They must learn the location of all
bombing objectives and be able to identify them from
photographs. They must be able to identify at a glance
silhouettes of all our own and enemy airplanes. They
,vill be given instruction in the enemy methods of attack
and our tactics for defense. Formation flights "ill be
made every day, approaching nearer to the lines. Pilots
and observers who are paired off in teams w:ill always fly
together when possible. They should live together in the
same quarters and know each other intimately. On the
practice flightsthe pilots will be given an objective, ancl
the time will be fixed for leaving the ground and born bing
the target. The formation ·will pass oYer the flying field
at a given altitude for· inspection by the commanding
officer.
When the flight retmns to the airdrome the signal to
break formation will be given by the leading observer.
The pilots will obey the rules of the flying field, landing
~ith the T , and in rotation. This pradi.ce will be con­tinued
until tl:ie pilots and observers know the sector
perfectly and can adhere to the time sch edule while
flying t ight formation \\ith a full load of bombs. The
observers will make ' obser vations, practice signals with
Very pistols, take photographs, and submit raid reports to
the operations officer immediately after landing. During
this p eriod the pilots and observers will be given instruc­tion
in aerial gunnery with shooting practiee at ground
targets. The observers must become expert machine
gunners to be successful in combats rith hostile aircraft.
This training ,yiJJ give the squadron commander an op­port
unity to select bis flight leaders and the observers,
who are to specialize in photography, reconnaissance, and
protection.
Leading observers will be chosen f.rom those making the
best records at the bombing schools. After operations
have b egun oth er observers will be given opportunity to
qualify in leading. Some observers make excellent
records in training centers, but fail in duty over the lines,
and vice versa. After this training the squadron will be
ready to begin real operations. Large targets which are
close to the lines and easr to hit should be eh0sen ~s objec­tives
for the first raids.
OH.APTER IX.
PREPARATION FOR A RAID.
Day bombardment objectives will be design;i,ted by G-3
of the Army, and transmitted through the Army Air SerY­ice
commander to the commander of the group. Upon
receip t of these orders be will call a conference of his
squadron commanders, the group operations officer, the
armament officer, and the flight leaders and their observers,
to decide up.on the following:
(a) The number of formations and the number of air­planes
in each .
(b) The types and weights of projectiles to be carried.
(c) The i·oute, altitude, and time of departure and
arrival over objective of each formation.
(d) The method of pursuit cooperation.
This conference m.ust be completed in time lo allow the
pilots and observers ample time to acquaint themselves
with all available information regarding the objective,
both primary and secondary, the route, and the region to
be observed and photographed. The squadro1i. com­manders
will designate the pilots and observers who are
to participate in the raid , and arp responsible for their
10
preparation for the execution _of the mission. They will
designate their flight leaders, and deputy flight leaders,
and will' assign positions in the formation to the rest of the
teams sch eduled for the raid. The squadron operations
officers will then prepare the operation order, a copy of
which will be sent to the group operations officer.
THE FORMATIONS.
Day bombardment squadrons will invariably work in
formation. The formation should be large, as many as 18
airplanes being easily controlled by a leader when work­ing
at high altitudes. For low flying formations in bad
weather, 8 is the maximum that can be employed. All
formations must have the following characteristics:
(a) Simplicity.
(b) No dead angles.
( c) Concentration of fire to the r ear.
(d) Concentration of fire below the center of the forma-tion.
(e) Compactness.
(!) Each airplane must be able to see the leader.
All formations, wh atever the number, should fly in a
V formation with the rear of the V closed. Formations
of more than 10 should have l' airplane in the center of
the V at the average altitude of the V . Airplanes in
formation should be numbered as follows:
1
3 2
5 12 ,t
7 6
9 11 10 8
No. 1 is the leader and flies at the lowest altitude, Nos. 2
and 3, 4 and 5, and similarly placed pairs should fly at the
same altitude, Nos. 2 and 3 about 50 meters higher than
No. 1, and about 30 meters to the right and left of No. 1,
respectively . No. 4 takes the same position relative to
No. 2 and No. 2 with reference to No. 1, and No. 5 takes the
same position with relation to No. 3.
Formations should be as compact as possible, especially
when dropping projectiles; during a combat, formations
should close up. Too much emphasis can not be laid upon
the t raining of day bombardment pilots in formation
flying. · If the pilots maintain a .regular echelonment in
height, in case of emergency they can close up quickly
upon the leader, by diving. The leader should never open
his thi:ottle wide, and observers should always warn their
pilots whenever their own or any other airplane appears
to be getting out of formation. It is fatal for an airplane
to leave the formation , and the formation should not be
broken up to protec~ an airplane 'which has dropped out.
THE TAKE-OFF.
The pilots and observers should be in readiness on the
field at least 30 minutes ll e[ore the formation is scheduled
to leave the ground , reporting to· th eir respective opera­tions
officers. This will give the operations officers time
to replace any unavailable pilots or observers. The pilots
will utilize this time to make a . thorough inspection of
their airplanes and test their engines, and the observers
tci arrange their maps, Very pistols, ammunition drums.
and to inspect their machine gm1s. If the flying field is
sufficiently large the formation will be assembled on the
round. The flight leader and pilots 2 and 3 leave the
ground simt1ltaneously; 4 and 5 will start as soon as the
wheels of 2 and 3 are in the air, and so on until the whole
formation is in fligl'tt. The leader will throttle down as
soon as he has attained sufficient altitude to do so with
safety. When all the airplanes are in position the flight
leader may take up traveling speed in climbing, b ut never
full speed. The only practicable form.ation maneuver is
a figme 8 on a wide circuit of about 5 kilomet ers.
FLIGHT TO THE OBJECTIVE.
The form11tion will attain an altitude of 1,000 meters
in the vicinity of the airdrome, and then, upon the signal
of · one white star from the leading airplane, follow the
prescribed cow·se to the lines. The bombing altitude,
generally 4,000 meters or high er. must be attained before
the formation is within 5 kilometers of the. lines, in order
that the leading observer may make the calculations
necessary for the adjustments of his sight withclut being
molested by antiaircraft fire or enemy airplanes. The
target may be approached either up or down wind. The
formation should be tight upon crossing the lines. Any
airplane which can not hold its position in the formation
must return to the airdrome.
BOMBING THE OBJECTIVE.
When nearing the objective the leading observer will
steer his pilots by means of reins attached to the pilots'
arms. This is necessary because the pilot has a limited
visibility of ob jects directly under· his airplane. The
leacling ol:server should recheck his calculatioDs, and th en
fire the " Prepare to bomb" signal of s;ix green stars.
When the image of the t arget appears at the black line
in the bomb sight he will pull the bomb-dropping lever.
All other observers, or pilots, as the case may be, will
release their bombs the moment those of the leading
airplane are seen to leave the racks. Great accuracy has
been obtained by using this method of bombing. Preci­sion
bombing over the lines is an art in wpich only a few
ol:ser vers excel. ' Such observers should be . chosen for
leading or deputy positions. Bomb sighting requirns cool
judgment and intensiYe ot servation of the target. Excite­ment
causes .inaccuracies. If but one observer does the
sigh ting he knows that all the others are acting as protec­tion.
and his excitement is thus lessened.
When several formations are · sent to attack t he same
ob jective they should bomb at 30-second intervals. Upon
leaving the obj ective they should all turn in the same
direction. In the perfmmance of a day bombardment
mission it is essential that the formations reach the objec­tives
exactly on time; in order that successful cooperation
with the pursuit units designated may be assured . With
successful pursuit cooperation great damage can be inflicted
upon the enemy with the minimum losses to both day
uombardment_ and pursuit. During the Argonne-Meuse
offensive the cooperation between day bombardment and
pursuit was responsible for 75 per cent of the enemy air­planes
brought down by the first pursuit wing.
THE RETURN ROUTE.
To spend the minimum amount of time over hostile
territory is the aim of every formation leader. The route
from the objective back to the lines must be chosen with
ron'<irlQra.tion of the direction of the wind, the position of
11
the sun, the location of cloud banks, the most accurate
enemy antiaircraft batterias, and the probable direction
of attack by enemy aircraft. If the presence of hostile
aii·craft does not make' it inadvisable, the formation leader
should always take advantage of the ,irind to regain the
lines. It is sometimes advisable to fly toward the sun,
and thus put the enemy _under the d1sadvantage of facing
the stroni light. The leader should avoid passing under
clouds which offer concealment to hostile airplanes.
Clouds under the formation or at the same level, may be
utilized for protection. Frequent changes of direction
should be made, but they should be m~de slowly. Rapid
changes of direction may cause a rear airplane to lag,
which usually results in its .destruction. Speed does not
. enter very much into the ·safe return of the formation.
The formation should be ~o formed to afford no vulnerable
point of attack, as its safety depends upon its fire superi­ority.
BREAKING FORMATION AND LANDING.
Having recrossed the lines, beyond which enemy pur­suit
airplanes seldom venture, the formation leader begins
a long glide toward the airdrome. When nearing the land­ing
field the leading observer fires a green rocket as a signal
to break formation. The airplanes circle the airdrome
and land accmding to number in formation. No. 1 first
followed by No. 2, and so on. All airplanes land into the
wind; as indicated by the T. The landing rules must
be strictly observed. The observers and pilots report
immediately to their respective operations officers on the
field , and submit written raid reports, which include
results of the bombardment, observations of enemy move­ments
on the ground and in the air, the number of enemy
airplanes brought down, and our own losses.
LOW BOMBING RAIDS.
As a gel).eral rule low bombing is impracticable with
day bombardment. At the beginning of an advance, or
during an offensive, by either friendly or hostile troops,
tliere are occasions when day bombardment must resort
to low bombing. Such occasions arise when the ,weather
conditions are such that altitude can not be attained to
carry out the imperative bombardments. Other occasions
are when certain bridges must be destroyed, but the
topographical features around the objective make it im­possibly
for artillery fire to accomplish that destruction.
Day bombardment must be used at low altitudes against
such objectives. •
The time element often prevents the accomplishment of
such missions. The day bombardment airdromes are at
considerable distance from the front lines, and time is
required for transmitting the information, and for warming
up the high-powered engines. Often the conditions have
changed before the bombers arrive at the objective. A
heavily loaded bombing airplane is slow in climbing and
manoeuvers, and therefore unsuited for this kind of work.
The best type of airplane for low bombing is one that can
climb and maneuver quickly. The rotary engine,
which is air cooled, and can be started very readily; and
which continues to run after being hit by enemy bullets,
would, therefore, be better than the fixed engine for low
bombing. The accuracy and volume of ground fire
causes sb many losses that low bombing is not practicable,
even if our forces have supremacy of the air.
When orders are received for a low-bombing mission the
group commander decides the number of airplanes to be .
sent in formation, never more than six . · Great care should
be taken in selecting the leader. He should be daring,
and know the t er,ain perfectly and the exact location of
our own troops. The pilots should be chosen for their
skill and daring, as there is always danger of collisions
when the bombers operate at very low altitudes. When
descending to bomb the pilots should " strafe" the ob­jective,
to demoralize the enemy and prevent accurate
fire from the ground. The observers use their machine
guns before and after they have released the bombs.
CHAPTER X.
COMBAT.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
The three general tactical principles m order of thell\
importance are:
(1) The effective bombing of the objective.
(2) The reduction of our losses to a minimum.
(3) The inflicting of the greatest losses to enemy avia­tion.
Tactics of day bombardment in combat are, there
fore, defensive.
, Due to the size of a bombing formation, and the slow
maneuvers necessary, quick changes of direction and
steep drives are impracticable .. The bombers have to de­pend
upon the nature of their formation, which should be
such as to give them fire superiority. The formation should
have symmetry, simplicity, and compactness, with no
dead angles, and should permit a concentration of fire to
the rear and below the centeT. Each pilot must be able
to see the leader. A formation so formed , with well­trained
pilot5 and observers, can defend itself against
superior numbers of the enemy.
The formation is limited to the number of airplanes
which can be maneuvered by a formation leader. The
importance of th(l objective determines the number of
airplanes to be employed in a particular raid. When the
number required is greater than can be us(ld in one forma­tion,
the mission paEses from squadron size to that of the
group. The plan of group bombing is analogous to the
chain formation employed by pursuit aviation. The sev­eral
flight leaders are subordinate to the leader of the lead­ing
formation, and must make their tactics correspond to
his. It is a governing principle that the chain of responsi­bility
must never be broken, from airplane to airplane in
the squadron, and from formation to formation in the
group. This leads to the question of formation leaders,
upon whom the success or fail um of operations very largely
depends.
FORMATION LEADER.
A formation leader to be successful must have the abso­lute
confidence of his pilots and observers. Undet definite
orders at all times much depends upon his quick decisions
and a.ccurate estimates of tactical situations. The tactical
situation often changes his plans. The appearance of
cloud banks, a clmnge in the direction of the wind, a sud­den
burst of sunlight, or new methods of attack by the
enemy, make it imperative for him to think · and act
quickly to carry out his m.i,ssion in the face of altered con­ditions.
He must know just what reliance can be placed
on each pilot. He must so arrange his pi.lots and the chain
of responsibility in the formation that no matter how great
the losses incurred the formation will preserve its unity.
12
He must be a model of discipline, and enforce the same
from his pilots. Though temp ting aircraft targets often
appear he must remember that the safety of the formation
depends upon its unity, and n ei ther he nor any other
pilot should break formation to attack individually. He
must sacrifice chances f~r personal glory in com bat to the
object of his mission, which is to reach and bomb the ob­jective
and retmn without los .
\
ENEMY METHODS OF A'l"l'AC I, .
The deciding element in aerial combat is usually sur­prise.
The enemy will employ all means at his disposal
to conceal his approach. His most usual methods are to
climh into the sun, and approach from that direction with
the advantage of light and altitude. Wben the enemy gets
between a formation and the sun he often escapes detec­tion
until he actually,opens fire. He will also take advan­tage
of cloud banks to screen his approach. Sometimes
when operating as a chain one flight of enemy pursuit
airplanes will follow the bombers to attract th eir atten­tion,
while other fligh ts approach unnoticed . His aim is
to break up the formation , or at least isolate se,:eral of t he
bombers, and then by concentration to destroy them.
Sometimes a single enemy pun uit airplane will fly below
and in front of the formation in an attempt to entice a
bombing pilot to dive at him. Other enemy airplanes, at
greater altitudes, will immediately dive on the bomber
thus separated from the formation.
Having decided to attack, several o[ the enemy usually
approach from the rear and open fire at about 200 meters.
While the obsen-ers are engaged with these at the rear,
other attacking airplanea will dive under the formation
and attack from the dead angle under the tail. This at­tack
is usually directed .at the a1rplanes at the rear o[ the
formation. Other airplanes will dive rapidly at either eide.
of the formation and rake the whole arm ol' the V with
deflection fire. One, or perhaps two, will try to shoot down
the leader, and thus break up the formation. Occasion­ally,
when the enemy has vastly superior numbers, he will
make a determined rush at the formation. This attack,
when made by experienced flights, is very hard to combat,
especially ii the bombers are inexperienced. An enemy
formation sometimes flies parallel to the bombing f orma­tion
at a slightly greater altitude. In an attack of this
kind the indi vi.dual pilots make sudden di,·es at the flank
of the bombers, deliver their bursts, and then wing slip to
safety before regaining their positions alongside and above
the formation.
M8THODS OF DEFENSE.
The observer first to sight enemy airplanes fires a rocket
of six red stars. The formation tightens up, and the ob­servers
fire at the .nearest enemy airplanes. Fire is con­centrated
upon the leading airplanes until they turn back
or are brought clown. When this is accomplished, fire is
brought to bear on the enemy airplanes which ventme
closest to the formation. During a combat the pilots watch
the progress of the fighting by means of mirrors and en­deavor
to maneuver their airplanes into the best firing
p ositions for'the observers and at the same time keep their
places in formation. The formation leader maneuvers to
take advantage of the wind , clouds, and sunlight. He
should never increase the formation speed beyond that
possible to the slowest airplane in the formation . In a
group operation he will lead his formation so the guns of
the other formations can be brought to bear on the enemy.
The leaders of the other formations will maneuver to con­form
to the n ecessities of group.protection. II' an observer
has his guns compl etely jammed, or if he is too badly
wounded to operate his gtrns, the pilot will. fl y directly
below the 1,eader for protection. If an engine is put out or
commission, the pilot will attempt to regain the lines. The
leader can sometimes maneuver the formation to protect
a pilot who has been forced to drop out, but no pilot will
leave the formation [or that purpose. The leader must
always hear in mind the prearranged cooperation wit_h the
pmsuit and try to lead the enemy toward the rendezvous.
The pursuit airplanes can inflict great losses by attacking
when the enemy is engaged with the bombers.
'J'ACl'JCS OF A SI NG LE TWO-SEATER.
\\'hen a bombing airplane becomes separated from the
formation, the pilot and observer generally have to fight
their way bar:k to the lines. A large bombing formation
attracts enemy pursuit airplanes from · over a wide area.
Pilots· with engine trouble, or fo rced to drop behind be­cause
of broken control wires, are attacked by enemy air­planes
from the main combat as weHas those which were
too late to attack t he formation prop er. When thus at­tacked,
the pilot must fly an irregular comse. He must
give his obser ver every chance to fire bursts at favorable
targets and t ry to reach the lineB as q uiekly as possible.
If the attacking airpla nes are numerous, and the pilot,
considering the disability of his airplane, sees no chance
to cut his way through, it is well to make a tight spiral in
descending. Often a pilot can risk the acr:uracy of ground
fire if such a maneuver would throw off the attacking air­planes.
PART 11.--NIGHT BOMBARDMENT.
INTRODUCTION.
Night tombardme11t aviation was undergoing a con­tinual
process of evolution during the Great War.
l. Constant improvements to the material (faster air­planes.
greater carrying power. illuminating and signaling
rockets) . ·
2. Constant improvements in the devices for night
defense against airplanes.
This evolution is far frnm having reached its ultimate
stage, and every fresh period of activity is condnciy'e to
some fresh alteration of methods.
Nevertheless night bombardment tactics embody a cer­tain
number of immutable principles; their practical
realization alone is subject to alterations.
(a) The oJTensive.- Whatever may be the devices heaped
up for protecting an o!:Jjective nothing will make it proof
against the bombing airplane provided the crews be en­dowed
with a keen offensive spirit, be properly trained ,
and equipped with ade;:iuate material.
(b) Liberty of ac'.ion. - !\. nigh t bombardment raid can
only be successful if the crews have their liberty of action
insured , which means all measures of secmity having been
though t out . The start will be taken from grounds un­known
to t he enemy or properly defil ed. and , moreover,
the crews will have at their disposal al l possib le appliances
meant to hamper the action ol' the enem:-· (rnckets. camou­flage,
silent engines, etc.).
(c) Concentration of ac'.ion.- To be thoroughly efli cient a
night bomt ardment raid will be carried out so that al!
efforts will concentrate on one single. o'.:>jective. 9,nd do so
repeatedly. .
(d) Saving np of forces.-It is a fact that everything in
aviation wears out very fast, so aviation will only te
brnught in to use against important objectives out of reach
of artillery . The crews will be given every possitle chance
of rest, so the long distance l'rom the lines of ihe airdrome
will be looked upon as a chance l'or bettering the accommo­dation
of the air men. ln the same way their task " 'ill be
made easier by setting up luminous landmarks between
the lines and the airdrome and by fitting the airplanes with
all possible latest imprnvements, such as the most accurate
types of compass. seH-ligh ting instruments. etc.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Night bombardment aviation will aim:
l. At destroying the military and industrial organiza­tions
of the enemy.
2. At hampering the regular carrying out of services at
the rear.
3. At securing all information concerning the enemy
back areas.
4. At holding back at a long distance from the frnnt an
important portion of the antiaircraft guns.
5. Reduction of enemy morale. civil and military.
Bombardment aviation airplanes are armed with bombs
.and machine guns: The bornbs come in use:
l. By th eir splinters against the aviation personnel and
material .
2. By- the force of concussion and incendiary power
against all kinds of material.
The machine gims come into use against the personnel ;
they are principally relied upon for their moral effect.
Bombardment aviation is divided into two classes:
J. Tactical aviation.
2. Strategical aviation.
Tactical m:iation .- Its first and foremost aim will be
attack and destroy such enemy organizations as are out of
range of artillery (30 miles back of the lines at the utmost).
The objectives will be:
l. Railheads, railway tracks. and al l works like bridges.
viad ucts,,.etc. '
2. Enemy aviation grnunds.
3. Parks and d epots.
4. Bivouacs and cantonmen ts.
5. General head quarters.
Strateqical aviation. - Will principally hamper the pro­duction
· of en emy · ndustrial establishments within its
reach . The objectives are:
1. Factories and blast furnaces.
2 .. Railheads and railway tracks leading to these fac ­tories.
Eventually strategical a,iatiou may have to carry out
reprisal raids on enemy towns.
When far-reaching operations are being carried out, part
·of the strategical aviation will be used for bac1.-ing tactical
aviation during attacks on the lines of communication.
Night bomb!}rdment aviation can achieve most impor­tant
results:
1. From a military standpoint, by its cooperation on the
battlefield with other arms of the service, as well by its
·work of destruction and by the information it brings in.
2. From an economical standpoint, by the damage it
causes and by the perturbation it creates in the good
working of factories and railheads.
3. From a moral standpoint, by the constant threat it
means to the safety of troops, staffs, and civilians.
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CHAPTER II. ·
AIRDROME- LOCATION; LANDING LIGHTS,
, SIGNALS, ETC.
The airdrorne.-The airdrome will be large, level, and
on high ground, not nearer than 20 miles to the enemy
lines.
Night bombardment airdromes, in addition to the regu­lar
equipment of adequate hangars, barracks, and.storage,
require special equipment for night flying. This equip­ment
is essentially for lighting and signaling and for com­plete
contrnl, from a central point, of the airdrome and
flying operations. For the pmpose of reliability, all equip­ment
should be installed in duplicate. Flares and rockets
will also be kept on hand for signaling in the case of a
breakdown of the electric equipment.
Landing lights.~ There will be two Ls-one for taking
off and one for landing. The short encl of the L will al -
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ways be pointed directly into the wind and the last light
on the short end of the L will be red. The Ls are made
up of electric lights laid on the ground, the bulbs to be
about 15 feet apart. The taking-off L will be nearest the
hangar. The landing L will be parallel and about 200
yards, or as near that distance as the size of the field will
permit," away from the taking-off L . The space between
the Ls will be known as "No man's land."
There will be two signal towers, if the airdrome is far
enough behind the lines, or two signal men with flash-
· lights. Tower No. 1 at the hangars and tower No. 2 down
the wind about 500 yards from the taking-off and landing
Ls. All flying will be controlled from tower No. 2.
If for any reason the pilot on landing can not taxi into
"No man's land" upon being given the signal, he will
signal the fact by using a Very's light. This will tell
tower No. 2 that the landing L is occupied. Any pilot
wishing to land from now until the landing L is cleared
will receive either a red ligh t from tower No. 2 or in case
the taking-off L is not in use, two white lights, which means
that the pilot may use that to land on.
If for any reason a pilot is forced to land immediately,
he will fire one red, Very's light. If the landing Lis clear
he will receive a white light in reply. If the landing L
is .blocked he will receive a red light in reply and must
then land on the taking-off L. If there is a wreck in the
landing L a red light will be placed beside it and the land­ing
L moved so that the limits of "No man's land " include.
the wreck.
From field experience the conclusion has been reached
that the illumination of the airdrome by searchlights is
not generally necessary nor feasible. Airplane landing
flares are reliable and provide sufficient light for landfng.
Electric current for j;he airdrome should be obtained from
a double source, if possibJe. A main line may be tapped,
and in addition a field generating set should be ready for
instant use in case of a shut-down. When conditions
warrant, a dummy, or camoltflage airdrome, will be oper­ated
near the service airdrome. This dummy airdrome
is used for deceiving enemy bombing airplanes, and can
also be used for emergency landing when the service air­drome
has bl3en, or is being, bombed.
OI-IAP.TER III.
PRELIMINARY TRAINING AT THE FRONT.
Reading of all orders.-When an officer joins 'a new unit
he will immediately read and initial all orders i ssued by
the group and squadron, so that he is thoroughly con­versant
with all regulations concerning routine.
He will be introduced to the commanding officer, and
the flight commander of the flight to which he is attached.
He will be shown all over the airdrome and be given a
thorough education in the system of working in force, and
of the type of airplane flown.
The airplane ca:ii not be gone into too thoroughly from
the gasoline pressure system to the method of rigging and
starting up the engines.
When an officer has a general knowledge of the air­plane,
and has an intelligent interest in its various parts,
he will be taken into the air as much as possible as a
passenger.
Observers.-Observers will be instructed in the type of
sight which may be in _use and the method of a.djusting
same. The bombing crews will be given daily practice
in passing over a camera obscura and be given frequent
practice in the dropping of bombs.
After a bombing crew has been at the front a sufficient
length of time to become acclimated, t he crew will be
split up and the pilot will m~ke a short raid with an ex­p
erienced observer as his crew met in a medium size
formation. He will take part in sevJral raids at the same
time that his observer is participating in them with an
experienced pilot. A few short raids will be sufficient
to give new pilots and observers confidence in themselves
and a working knowledge of the sector over which they
fly.
It is presumed that pilots and observers are'more or less
trained when they join a squadron but a revisionary course
is very necessary and keeps officers· interested in their
work, especially when they are new to heavy bombing.
Nonflying weather.-When it is not possible to give in­struction
in the air, and before an officer is sent as a
passenger on a night bombing raid, or allowed to fly alone
at night, he will be made thoroughly acquainted with the
local regulations governing night flying.
All signals in force for the a.irdrome and recognition
purposes will be explained.
Operations ojfice.-Many hours will be spent in the
operations office studying p ossible objectives, land marks,
the p osi tion of the lines, positions of our own airdromes,
lighthouses, towns, etc. Compass courses will be made
out individually by officers, to and from objectives, and
prominent features, in faGt eve1'y thing useful for cross
country flying both by day and night, will be given long
and careful consideration before an officer is detailed on
a flight, other than in the vicinity of the airdrome.
In considering objectives all available ·photographs
will be at the disp osal of officers at all times in order that
they may thoroughly acquaint themselves with their
targets and compare the photographs with the markings
on an ordinary map. ·
Intelligence reports for the past three months will be
read t hrough and incidents referred to plotted out on a
large scale map.
An experienced pilot or observer will give lectures ex­plaining
the ,defenses of the enemy and the best routes
to fly when in hostile territory, and the most satisfactory
direction in which to attack the various objectives in
order to obtain the maximum results.
The various activities of the enemy which, will be of
use from a point of view of intelligence, and which should
be looked o·ut for and reported, will be explained.
Vi'hen all the knowledge laid out in the above syllabus
has been conveyed to new officers, they mll be in a posi­tion
to take an intelligent interest in everything they
may see when they are sent as passengers for experience
on night bom):Jing raids.
CHAPTER IV.
RAIDS.
Choice of the mode of attack.-According to the nature
of the objective, t he mode of attack and kind of bombs
used differ.
(A) Bivo'/1,acs and cantonments.-Against personnel,
bombs will be UBed without delay action fuse, and such
as burst into numerous fragments. It is best to take up
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a great number of comparatively light-weight bombs.
The moral effect is greatly enhancE\d when the airplanes
fly over, following each other, 15 or 30 minutes apart.
(B) Airdromes.-When attacking airdromes, bombs
will be used against personnel and their splinters are
meant to wreck airplanes and engine as well.
Day airdromes will be attacked, at a time when visi­bility
is at its best (dusk or moonlight).
Night airdromes will be attacked whenever any activ­ity
is anticipated, and the attacks will be made when
night sets in, so as to hinder the starting off of aii·planes.
(C) Railway stations.-Any kind of bombs come in use­ful,
preferably high capacity demolition bombs.
The bombing airpfa.nes will be sent over the objective
a.t intervals, the entire night. · The best crews will be
sent off first and deal out early, the mo~t severe and in­tensive
bombardment., so as to get the tracks out of re­pair
from the start.
(D) Factories and ammunition depots.- Bring into use
the biggest bombs, with maximum delay action fuses,
at the time of night when visibility is at its best.
Choice· of itinerary.-This choice is based:
1. On the necessity of avoiding collisions b
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etween air­planes
flying over the same region. To that end, limits
will be assigned to each squadfon, by the group com­mander.
For the same reason, the outward journey and
the journey back will he made along different courses.
In certain cases, a change of altitude may he enough.
2. On the following up of planimetric details which
stand out best by night. ·
As a general rule the observer will not lose sight of the
ground a single minute. He follows the course of canals,
of rivers, the long straight roads, the outskirts of woods.
The itinerary will be chosen accordingly. But this
method is very hard to follow in regions where the pro­jectors
are very active. It is easier in this case to make
straight ahead for the objective, its direction being shown
by a succession · of landmarks in the same vertical plane,
which succession of landmarks in this case will be the
flashes of signalization headlights.
3. On the best ways of avoiding the antiaircraft guns
and of stealing through to the objective.
Even across the best protected regions there always are
more or less narrow channels through which airplanes may
be defiled from the guns and projectors. The site of these
channels can be found out by drawing on a map of anti­aircraft
positions the zone of effective action of every
battery and of every projector.
STUDY OF THE ITINERARY AND OF THE
OBJECTIVE.
Before any bombardment raid is carried out the squadron
co=ander will muste1: the pilots and observers, deliver
to them their orders, and with the hel_p of the intelligence
officer guide them in the caref4l preliminary stuay of
their mission. · ·
This preliminary study is of paramount importance.
The crews will make a study of both itin';)rary and
objective, as they will have few· opportunities of studying
their maps on the flight.
Map of lights.-In friendly territory this map will in­clude
a certain number of luminous signals easy to detect.
(a) Signalization headlights showing the direction of
the objective.
(b) Luminous signals within the sector.
(c) Infantry rockets, which show up 'an accurate outline
of the lines.
During the attacks artillery bursts play the same part.
On enemy territory the map of lights includes:
(a) Villages, factories, lighted up railway stations. As
a rule only the first airplanes to cross the lines benefit by
them, as all lights are put out as soon as warning is given
of their coming.
(b) Searchlights.
(c) Lighted up airdromes.
Planimetric details.-The observers will bear in mind
the foremost of the planimetric details, so as to make them
out when flying over them.
These details vary according to the season, the region,
and the visibility; for instance, a wood, which is an im­portant
landmark in a cultivated country, is not a typical
feature in a forest land ; a straight road, which stands out
in dry weather, will not show after a rainfall. It will be
the squadron co=ander 's duty to bring to the observer's
notice any such detail.
/These important points will first of all bE. carefully
studierl on the map so that the crews will be wdl informe~l
of their respective distance to the objective.
To this end each observer will draw from memory a
rough sketch of the region, showing all details brought to
notice by the squadron co=ander, and he will practice
keeping to scale. The same details will be studied from
big scale maps and chiefly from photographs. At times it
will even be possible to build up from these photographs
the whole of the itinerary. This is by far the mpst inter­esting
and the most faithful part of the preliininary study.
Each observer will devote himself so much to the study
of photographs and panoramic views that he will be able
to pick up his way through enemy territory just as easily
as if he were flying in the vicinity of his own airdrome.
Reconnoitering missions .- The squadron co=ander will
point out to the observers the different spots which they
have to reconnoiter and to watch closely- such as woods
in which bivouacs are supposed to be hidden, 'railway
stations, and railroad tracks. •
The ob.servers-will bear in mind that the reconnoitering
mission, which is a joint part of every bombardment raid
is of the utmost importance and that information gathered
may be very farreaching. When flying over a zone of
attack the observer who is well trained to night observa­tion
can tell at a glance by the difference of light and
activity along the roads and railroad tracks upon which
sector the enemy means to concentrate its endeavors.
It is therefore indispensable that before they start on
their raid tl;ie 'observers should .be acquainted, through
t he squadron co=ander or the intelligence officer, with
all information which may contribute to the success of
the reconnaissance.
Summary.-The crews will sum up on a small board all
. information resulting from the study of the itinerary.
These notes of information wiH be completed by the reck­oning
of time needed for flying over every successive stage
of the way.
This board will be used as a memorandum durino- the
expedition and will be found more useful than the° map
and much easier to refer to.
Objective.-The objective will be studied in the same
way as the itinerary, from maps and plans at the greatest
possible scale, then from photograpb.s.
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As a rule the most important objectives are so well
surrounded by searchlights that the observers are nearly
unceasingly blinded by the glare and can only catch
occasional and far between glimpses of them, which makes
it imperative that the study of photographs be carried
out with minute care, as the slightest detail just seen
between two beams of light must be enough to settle
app\'oximately the center of the objective.
Sketches chalked on the blackboard from photographs
and drawn from memory will complete the study. They
will afford the squadron commander with the best way
of making sure whether the observers have sufficient
knowledge of the aspect of the objectives.
The observers will go every day to the operations office,
refer to the photographs, study the objectives, and keep
themselves continually informed of matters of interest
to them, such as maps of airdromes, antiaircraft guns,
lines of communication, etc .
CHAPTER V.
CARRYING OUT OF A MISSION.
The carrying out of a bombardment mission means two
different propositions:
1. Following the itinerary up to the objective.
.2. Bombing the objective.
ITINERARY.
Over the friendly zone.-The crew will pick out its way
by means of the signalization headlights, knowing their
location and distinctive signals. As a rule, a certain
number of headlights are in a line with the main objective.
The crews, when reaching the vertical of these lights,
make out which point of direction th~y "ill make for
(usually a star), and according to the time elaspod before
they reach the next light, they can approximately reckon
the time it will take to reach the objective .
Over the enemy zone.- The crew will proceed on its way
according to the preceding method, flying straight ahead,
or else, and it is the best, when possible, by holding to its
itinerary without losing sight of the ground.
Both methods, in case of need, will be combined.
l'il'h.en · the ai.rplane, reached by the searchlights, can
not keep to its course, it will strive to keep to its direction
(by making for the same star, though swerving to and_from
so as to disturb the aim of the batteries). The observer
will compute by time, the approximate distance covered,
and strive to find out its bearings when out of reach of the
antiaircraft guns.
If the crew loses its way,· or when flying over sea or
clouds, it will resort to the same method.
It is impossible to lay out absolute rules as to the way of
following an itenerary ; the way changes for every expedi­tion
according to atmospheric conditions, visibility,
activity of antiaircraft guns, etc.
Experience is the only guide, under such circu mstances,
and crews made up of men of long standing experience
will succeed in their mission on especially rough nights
when green obseTvers would have most certainly lost their
way.
For reconnoitering purposes a properly trained crew
will divide the work. The pilot brings up to the observers'
notice all lights and luminous signals which he sees; the
observer .tries to make out, when looking clown vertically,
the smoke of trains, the lights of bivouacs or convoys.
He enters in his log book any information gathered by
him or his pilot. ·
He completes his observation with the help of field
glasses. It frequently occurs that lights, which the naked
eye can not make out, when seen through field glasses,
prove to be the lights of an airc!rome, of a railway station,
of a conflagration. In the same way, it is only with the
help of field glasses that can be made out the number of
lights of a convoy, of a railway station, etc.
THE BOMBARDMENT.
The crew carrying out a night bombardment raid will
bear in mind that if its fire is inaccurate, its previous
efforts have been in vain.
It usually is when the airplane nears the objective that
antiaircraft guns are most active. Taken up by the
searchlights, by the batteries and the machine guns,
nevertheless the crew must keep cool and take its aim as
if practicing, without cutting off short and dropping the
bombs anywher~.
'l'he crew will :
1. Fly the airplane into the wind when within 2 or
3 miles from the objective and follow a straight course
before dropping the bombs.
2. Reach the objective flying at a steady rate of speed
(the airplane being held to a determined incidence), and
the wings reaching at sa~e angle over horizon line.
3. Drop the bombs in trai ls so as to lay the objective
between.
If the observer believes he is not passing right vertically
over the objective, he will warn the pilot, and the crew
will start to aim again.
SPECIAL MISSION.
Some particularly well-trained' crews can be intrustecl
with special missions.
These crews have to deal, at low altitudes, with objec­tives
of the greatest importance, but too small to allow
for an effective attack by any grouped formation .
These are:
1. Trains and convoys.
2. Determined points on railroad tracks (such as switches
viaducts, tunnels, etc.).
3. Certain airclromes.
The attack will be by stealth. The pilot will slow clown
his engine long before coming within reach of the objective
and glide clown silently to about a hundred yards from the
earth. The observer, as it were, will lay by hand his
bombs on the objective. Immediately afterwards, the
airplane will climb up again to normal altitude .'
When attacking trains, the track will be wrecked by
thick trails of bombs layecl about 100 yards in front of the
engine, so that the train will jump the track. The attack
on airclromes will be attempted with incendiary bombs.
In every case, the observer, after his bombs have been
dropped will fire his machine gun on the objective, while
the airplane is climbing back to its normal height.
Machine-gun fire will also be directed upon convoys and
bivouacs.
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