Aerial day bombardment, pilots and observers

              ~ OftlJ'ICIAL t:;SE 8N1 :X _
File C 53 / 99
AIR SERVICE INFORMA
(H EAVIER-THAN - AIR )
PUBLISHED BY THE CHIEF OF AIR SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Vol. II December 24, 1920 No. 141
AERIAL DAY BOMBARDMENT,
PILOTS AND OBSERVERS
Prepared by Training and Operations Group,
Office Chief of Air Service
...
THE FOLLOWING IS PUBLISHED FOR INFORMA-rioN ONLY. THE VIEWS
EXPRESSED ARE NOT NECESSARILY THOSE OF THE CHIEF OF
AIR SERVICE. NOTHING HEP.£IN rs TO BE CONSTRUED AS AN ORDER
OR DIRECTION WITH WHICH STRICT COMPLIANCE IS NECESSARY
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFF1CE
1920
NorE.-This pamphlet was begun with the intention
of ultimately obtainin\{ a provisional publication for dis­tribution
within the Air SerYice itself. With the discon­tinuance
of the activities of the American Expeditionary
Forces there does not remain' sufficient time to properly
complete a 'Provisional publication of this nature. J.'his
pamphlet has neither be(ln reviewed nor approved either
by the Chief of the Air Service or general headquarters,
American Expeditionary Forces. It is therefore filed
away_in the files of the Information Section of the Air Serv­ice
with a view to its b!)ing used, at some future date,
by such persons as may be detailed to write Air Service
official publications. This particular pamphlet has been
WTitten by the following named officers: Lieut. Col. G.
E. A. Reinburg, Capt. R. G. Stephens, First Lieut.
K. McDougall.
CONTENTS.
PART I.-FOREWORD.
CHAPTER I. - Introduction ...................... ....... ..... ............. ... ................. : .......... .
Purpose ............................................................................... .
Initiative ....................... -... .......................................... ...... .... .
Discretion ........................ : ................................................... .
Conclusion ................ .......................... .. .. ..... .................... : . .. .
PART II.-T:EIE BOMBARDMENT PILOT.
Page.
5
5
5
5
6
CHAPTER !.-Reporting for duty to squadron on active service........... . .............. .. ................... 7
Reporting to squadron ....... ..... . __ ................. ,................................. 7
Assignment to flight .......................... ................ .. ............ . . .'.......... 7
The operations office ..................................... _............................... 7
Assignment of airplane................................................................. 7
Training behind the lines at the squadron............................................... 7
CHAPTER II .;-Ground preparation for a raid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . 7
Preparation of personal equipment.. ... .... ....... .. ... . ....... ....... .................. 8
Signals between pilot and observer.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Work at operations office.......... ... .. .. ..... ...... .... ......... ...... ............. .... 8
Inspection of airplane. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. 8
CHAPTER IIL-The first raid ... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 8
Points to be especially remembered .................... ......... ... ... : . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . 8
Raid leader's instructions.. ........ . ................ . . , ................... : . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 8
The take-off ..................................................... .. . . ................ : . 8
The start for the lines ............... . ........ , ........................ ·.··............... 8
Duties before passing line of friendly balloons............................................... 8
Duties while over enemy territory.................................................. . ..... 8
Bombing.......................................................................... ..... 9
The return............................................................................ 9
C~APTER IV .-Combat ........... . ..... . .............. . . ·................................................. · 9
Duties when attacked by ·enemy aircraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Duties when attacked by antiaircraft fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Duties if formation is broken. ...... . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
CHAPTER V.-Forced landings .... ......... .... .................... 7
•• •• • ••••••• • ••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• 9
Forced landings within your own lines... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Forced landings within the enemy lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PART III.-THE BOMBARDMENT OBSERVER.
CHAPTER I.-Preliminary duties.. . ................................................... . .... ... . ..... . .. .... 11
Assignment . ... ................. ... . . ........................................... ·- ... 11
Reporting to a Squadron ........ ·......... • ......... . ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Who to see ............................................................. . ............ '.. 11
Irifor~ation to be secured from Operations Officer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Preliminary ,vork in operations room ............ .- . ,.. .. . .......... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
CHAPTER II.-The first mission.................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 11
Preparations ......................... '.... ........................... . ............ . ..... 11
What to look for in the air first ............................................. ·".......... 12
Bombing the objective . ... ...... : ............................................ .. ... . .... 12
Ground preparation for regular assignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
(2)
. .,
~
PART III.-THE BOMBARDMENT OBSERVER-Continued. ·~
. [f6~ ,
CHAPTER III.-Reconnaissance _. _ . .... _ .... . .... . ...... _ ....... . . _ .. . .... . .... .. .. ... .... .. . -·· .. . - . - . -..
3
Reconnais3ance during bombardment raids ... .. ... .... . . . . _ . ... .............. . . ... __ __ ... 13
What to look for ._ .. _. _ ... _ .... _ ............... .. . .... .. .. . . .. ... . . .... . .... . ..... . _... 13
CH.-\PTER I V.- Photographic assignment .. ...... _........................... .. ...... ....... . .............. 14
, Use of photography on bom'Jardment raids, ....... ____ ...... '. . . ...... . · ...... . . __ ._._.. . 14 ·
' Preparations . ......... .. .... . .. . . . .. . . .. .. ... . . . . . ...... .. ............. .... .... . .. ... . 14
CHAPTER V.-Special missions ......... • ................................ _ ............. . ................. _.. 14
Necessity . . . . .... . .... . .. .......... .. .. ............. ............................. _. __ . 14
Attacking ground troops,_ convoys, trenches........... .. .. .. ..................... ....... 14
Courier :μiission . . ............................. ___ .. _.., ........................ _ ..... _... 14
Propaganda dropping._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER VI.--General combat principles ........ ........... . .......................................... _.. . 15
Machine guns ...... . . ... ... ............ ... .. . . .. . . .. . . . .... . .. ... . .. . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
General cautions. . . .. ... ......... ... ............................................ . ... ... 15
Watching the air ......................................... .. .......... , .... .. ....... _.. 15
Picking up airplanes in the air .... . ..... . . . .... . ....................... . ....... _ ... _ . . . 16
Attack on day bombardment formation by enemy patrol . ...... .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Combat principles during the attack..... ... . . ......... . . .... . ...... . . ... ...... ... ...... 17
Conclusion .. ... . .............. . . .... . ........... .... ...... ... .. ..... .. . .. . .. . ·...... . .. 18
•·
AERIAL DAY BOMBARDMENT MANUAL FOR PILOTS AND
OBSERVERS.
PART !.-FOREWORD.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
viduals, the chances are against the enemy and he is
rarely willing to accept close combat with the formation.
Above all , t he. pilot and observer must remember that
the fundamental purpose of day bombardment flying is
(1) The purpose of this manual is to furnish a guide to to successfully bomb the assigned objectives, and that
. pilots and observers reporting from training centers to day aerial combat is an incident rather t han an object of the
b ombardment squadrons for active service at the front. mission.
It is not possible, nor is it desirable, to lay clown a series of
mandatory rules calculated to cover every contingency
that might arise during the course of the bombardment
pilot and observer's first few months on the front . There
are some contingencies for wJ.uch regulations can not be
laid clown. v'ilhat would be t rue in one case might under
slightly altering circumstances call for different tactics.
Nearly every pilot and observer will , after gaining ex­perience,
adopt slightly different methods of accomplish­ing
the same results in the air. In bombardment work,
as in other phases of aerial warfare, results will be looked
to rather than methods.
There are certain b;oad fundamental principles which
can not be ignored, however, and which , for obvious
reasons, admit of no individual interpretation by the
pilot or observer. They have been formulated as a re­sult
of long and costly experience by the Allied air fo1ces
from 1914 to 1918. Such is the principle involving forma­tion
flying on day bombardment missions and the neces­sity
for the pilot remaining in formation whatever the
seeming opportunities for individual combat. This
renders necessary the highest development of t eamwork.
Each pilot must feel that he is flying in formation, not
only for his own protection and the successful accomplish­ment
of the mission, but also to furnish protection to his
comrades in the formation, and that in leaving the forma­tion
he is not only reducing his own chances, but he is
weakening the formation itself and rendering the other
airplanes more vulnerable to enemy attack.
INITIATIVE.
(2) In day bombardment flying, as in all phases of aerial
warfare, the initiative faculties of both pilot and observer
must be highly cleYeloped . Flying over the front has
always the element of sudden emergencies which may
and frequently do arise to confront the pilot or observer .
At such times it becomes necessary to.act quickly, and the
individual judgment of the pilot or observer determines
the outcome of the situation. There may be occasions
when clue to a failing engine, or other una-voidable cause,
the pilot is forced to drop out of formation. 1-IaYing
once left the formation, he must act on bis own individual
judgment. Many factors may enter into the sit uation­whether
or not he is over enemy territory and the p ossf­bility
of reaching friendly territory, the presence of enemy
purnnit in the vi cinity, whether or not the observer will
drop his bombs if a forced landing is necessary, location
of airdromes near the lines, etc. The pilot and observer
will at such times follow the precedents as rigidly as
p ossible, but they must never fo llow t hem blindly
and will never cease training themselves to weigh one
method against another and in so doing to develop their
own judgmen t. While it is necessary to be mechanically
perfect in the performance of all their duties, they must
never fall into the error of ·becoming mechanical in
thought. They must seek to visualize the work of the
ground troops and weigh the various· elements involved
in whatever mission is to be accomplished.
The efficiency of the day b ombardment flier will always DISCRETIO, ·
be measured by his ability to cooperate and his willing- (3) The faculty of discretion must be developed by
ness to develop the spirit of service and dependability, bombardment pilots and observers, especially during the
rather than by any chance success he may have had against first few months over the front. 'l'he enemy will always
the enemy by violating the established principles of day utilize all the elements in his favor in attacking a bom­bombardment
flying. bardment formation, and especially will he seek to sep-
There will be occasions when t he temptation will be arate airplanes lagging behind from the formation. 'l'he
very strong to dive down out of formation to protect some new pilot and observer must avoid recklessness and seek
airplane which has been forced to drop behind, but the in every way to avoid playing the en emy's game.
pilot must remember that in doing so he is playing into In th eir first few months at the front both the pilot and
the enemy's hands and is breaking up his formation, observer will be learning composure, quick shooting,
which is just what the enemy is seeking. The enemy will knowledge of instinctive maneuvers, and teamwork. All
attack a bombardment formation only when he is present this time they are training their eyesigh t and developing
in large numbers and the formation is split up or some of the ability to focus their eyes.
the aiq:>lanes are lagging. As long as the bombers pre- Discretion means a high sense of responsibility, an
serve a compact, closed-up formation and present a united appreoiation of the elemental purposes of bombardment
front, fightino- as an effective whole rather than as indi- flying, and the pilot and observer who fully understands
(5)
his will neYer take reckless chances in order to engage in
combat.
If the pilot and observer conserve themselves during
the first few months at the front they will learn these
things and will be able later to do their work with pose,
sureness, accuracy, and a minimum of danger.··
CONCLUSION.
(4) In writing this manual it has been assumed that the
bombardment pilot and observer will have been thorough­ly
trained in the schools and training centers prior to their
6
assignment to a squadron at the front. The purpose of
this manual is to guide them in the crucial period of their
first few months of active service. The chapters devoted
to ,the bombardment observer are somewhat more ex­tensiv:
e than the manual for the pilot, because of the fact
that · a large part oI the observer's training ·comes only
after he has reached the front, and experience in day
bombardment flying has shown that due to enemy com­bat
methods in attacking bombardment formations the
chief task in breaking up enemy attack falls on the
observer.
PART IL- BOMBARDMENT PILOTS' MANUAL.
CHAPTER I.
REPORTING FOR DUTY TO A SQUADRON ON
ACTIVE SERVICE.
(5) When you arrive at a bombardment group, report
first to the commanding officer of the group and then to
t he commanding officer of the squadron to which you are
assigned. The squadron co= ander will give you a
general outline of the work of the squadron and assign you
to a flight. At the squadron office you will leave a b rief
record of your training, expe1ience, etc.
If you have come to the squadron with an observer, you
will report together. If you are not " teamed up " with an
observer, the squadron commander will assign an observer
to you.
The squadron adjutant will assign quarter to y ou.
After you are settled, ·go to .the supply office and draw your
flying equipment.
(6) As soon as you are assigned to a flight, report wi th
your observer to your flight commander. The flight
commander will be your chief adviser about all your work;
he will give you benefit of his experience and explain to
you the multi tude of things you have yet to learn by
actual flights across the lines. Be frank with your flight
commander; don't be afraid to ask him questions. Try
to win his confidence and follow his advice in the smallest
detail. Your flight commander is as anxious to make you
a valuable member of the squadron as you are to become
one. He will judge as to when you are ready to go on a
raid.
THE OPERATIONS OFFICE.
(7) The flight commander will show you the operations
office. Here you will find maps and all the information
about the sector, operations, intellige"nce, etc. The opera­tions
officer will issue you whatever maps y ou n eed, advise
you as to how to make your maps for use in the air, a~d give
you many good hints on learning th e sector .. During the
first week with a sq uadron you will spend all your spare
time in the op!,lrations office. Make a careful study of all
maps and charts in the office, learning every thing known
about the sector, the lines, the terrain, etc. Study with
special care the silhouettes of enemy airplanes from all
angles. EYen the smallest detail may at some time be o[
the greatest value to you . Learn the front lines so well
that you can trace them on any scale map. Learn the
prominent landmarks, such as towns, rivei·s, main roads,
etc., as far back into the enemy territory as possible.
Ac<]uire as much knowledge as is available of the location
of enemy airdromes, antiaircraft batteries, etc. All th.is
information can not be memorized before your-first t rip
across the lines, but you must lay a good fo undation and
keep adding to it in the inter vals between raids.
Make the kind of map which you find most -convenient.
Consult with experienced pilots about the maps they use.
The map will ei ther be put in a map case on the instrument
board or p asted on pieces of cardboard and must cover the
sector completely . It is impracticable for you to carry a
map of a scale larger than 1 to 200, 000 (metric system).
In no case will this ·map be marked with the course to be
followed , nor will it have anything on i t which would
indicate to the enemy, if it fell into their hands, how much
is known of their activities.
ASSIGNMENT TO AIRPLANE.
(8) 'f he flight commander will assign an airplane to you .
This-airplane will be flown by no one but yourself; t ry, by
your constant attention to it, to make it the best airplane
in the.flight. Each airplane will have its own crew. You
trust your life to the work of these men; win their friend­ship
and respect. Make a thorough inspection of the air­plane
and make whatever changes in the seat, instruments,
etc., are nec~sary to make the co~kpit most conveni ent
for you .
Take t he best possible care ot your airplane both in the
air and on the ground. Inspect it frequently and investi­gate
with the crew any t rouble. Notice what was done to
remedy, the t rouble and consider whether there is any ­thing
you can d_o to prevent its r ec urrence. Never strain
the airplane by unnecessary acrobacy. Be very careful
of your engine. Do not run it wide open on the ground
and for long t ime. Do not jam the tlu-ottle open sud­denly
. Be careful o[ the airplane and the engine whenever
possible, so that yon may have i t at its maximum efficiency
when you are over the lines.
TRAINING BEIDND THE LINES AT THE
SQUADRON.
(9) The flight commander will supervise your t raining
at the squadron . You will practice flying with a load of
bombs. You will fly formations with him and other
members of the flight behind t he lines i.mtil you have
proved to him your ability to hold your position in the
formation under t he most adverse condit ions. Practice
flying a zigzag course while still holding your position in
t he formatiop_. You must never fly in a straight line
when across the lines. You must constant ly S, con­stantly
change your course, and yet hold your correct
position in the formation . The pilot who never flys in a
straight line and st.ill keeps in formation is the best
bombardment pilot.
The squadron will have a range where you will spend
a great deal of time in machine-gun practice. On days
wh en there is no flying you will go to the range and perfect
your gunnery. You will calibrate all the a=unition
which you use in the air. You will leave the care of
your guns, however, to the armament officer.
CHAPTER ,II.
GROUND PREPARATION FOR A RAID.
(10) It. is essential that you do everything possible on
the ground to make things convenient for you while in
the air. Take care that your clothing, goggles, etc. , fit
(7)
8
and are comfortable. See to it that everything you will
need is in the airplane and in the easiest place to get at.
Have your fl ying clothes near the airplane where you can
get into t hem in a huny .
(11) Work out some sort of sign language with your
observer so that he can convey to you by a sign such
things as " Enemy under our tail on left."
Clear your pockets of any letters or papers that would
give information to the enemy in case you are brought
down on their sides of t he lines. HaYe yom identifica­tion
tags and card with you . Alway~ carry a check book
and some money. A small, easily concealed compass
and map of the enemy territory will always be carriea
to aid escape .
(12) The schedule of raids for each day will be posted
in the operations office, usually on the preceding evening.
Go over the route to t he ob jective with your observer.
Study· the maps and t ry to memorize the route. ~lake a
map covering the route to the objective and return.
Be on t he airclrome . with everything in readiness at
least 30 minutes before you are clue to leave the g1:o uncl .
The leader of t he raid will explain the ·points to be
especially noted .
Be sum you know your position in the formation and
the signals to be used. If the formation is to form in the
air, be sure you know t he rendezvous, the alt itude, and
your number in taking off.
(13) On the field before starting make the usual inspec­tion
of the airplane and guns. Try out your engine very
carefully: As you climb into the airplane make sure the
machine guns are properly loaded and ready to fire. Be
in your airplane, with everything ready and the engine
running, as soon as the leader of the raid is in his own
airplane. The secret of successfully dispatching larg<')
formations is to have all the airplanes ready at exactly
. the designated hour.
CHAPTER III.
THE FIRST RAID.
' (l {r The first raid will test your skill as a pilot, your
judgment, and yom courage. Only actual experience over
the lines can make you a valuable member of the squadron,
but if you remember the following points you will over­come
inexperience more quickly.
1. Keep your position in the formation at all times.
If you lag or get out to one side, you lessen the concen­tration
of fire of the formation, thereby lessening its defen­sive
strength and rendering it more liable to attack. If
you drop out of the formation entirely, you have thrown
your own life away and endangered your comrades by
weakening the formation.
2. If you are attacked by antiaircraft fire, close up the
formation. The primary reason for antiaircraft fire is to
distract your attention and break up your formation so
you will be easy to attack. The chances of being bit are
very small.
3. If the leader of the raid signals the presence of the
enemy, close up the formation as tight as possible. Try to
locate them. If you see them study their airplanes so that
you will be able to recognize the type the next time you
see i t.
4. If the formation is attacked, close up on the leader
and fly a zigzag course. Never attempt an individual ma­neuver;
your safety depends upon a close formation.
5. When the leading observer signals to prepare to bomb
close up to formation and fly on an eYen keel so that your
bombs may be dropped most el'fecti,·ely .
G. When dropping bombs be sure that you do not run
O\'er or under any other airplane.
7. On the return stay with th~ form'.ttion until the leader
signals to break up ; then wait your turn to land.
8. Always keep yourself oriented. Always keep some
prominent la1iclm:uk in sight which will show you the way
back to your airdrome.
(15) Twenty minutes before the start of the raid the
le'.Lder will call a meeting on the aird rome o[ all pilots and
observers who are to take part in the raid . Ile will desig­nate
the place in the iorm'.ttion which eich pilot will fly,
the altitude at which the raid will be made, the exact
place at which the [orm'ltion will cross the lines and the
place at which the formation will recross the lines on the
return. He will read the meteorological report giving
the speed and direction of the wind at various altitudes.
He will explain the nature of the objective and point out
on a map places to be especially noted for the purpose of
reconnaissance. IT e \V:ill state how many squadrons are to
bomb the objective and what pursuit protection, if any,
is to be given.
(16) Five minutes before the start of the raid all pilots
and observers will be in their airplanes. The engine 11·il1
be started as soon as the propeller of the leader's airplane
is seen to be revolving. The leader will taxi ou t into the
airdrome first and y~u will promptly taxi to a position
relative to your position in the formation.
(17) After the leader has reached a safe altitude he will
throttle down and you will take your proper position in
the formation. When all of the airplanes are in formation
the formation will head for the lines. The leading obser­ver
will fire a signal to show that the formation is starting
for the lines. You ,y-ill be sure to call your observer's
attention to all signals given by the le'.tding aiiplane.
(18) Before the formation passes the line of friendly
observation balloons, you will shoot a few bursts to mfLke
sure your guns are·working properly. After you pass this
line of balloons you will close up to almost battle forma­tion
closeness. You will constantly fly a zigzag course.
You should be constantly on the lookout [or enemy air­craft.
Antiaircraft fire will hegin to break around you.
You will be tempted to le'1Ye the formation to dodge it.
N e,-er obey that impulse. Stay with the formation.
(19) The leader will cross the lines exactly at the pre­viously
designated point, al titude, and time. He will be
especially careful about this if pursuit protection is to be
given. The leader will so plot the col!l·se to the objective
that the formation will approach the objec.tive either di­rectly
with or directly against the wind. Whenever anti­aircraft
fire becomes too heavy the leader will avoid it by
consta,nt, though gradual and slight, changes in altitudes
thrnugh ;i, range of about 300 feet.
You will keep constantly on the lookout for enemy air­craft.
Yom observer will be largely occu'pied with the
field of vision to the rear and to either side; you will be
especially watchful in fron t. You will signal your ob-
- -- _.server if you sight any enemy or suspicious aircraft. Your
observer will warn you if any other airplane in the for­mation
is dangerously near you.
(20) As the objective is approached the leading observer
will signal "Prepare to bomb." You will close up on
the leader and fly a straight course while passing directly
over the objective, so that your bombs may be dropped
most effectively. When you see the bombs drop from the
leading airplane you will drop your bombs. ~
(21) While you are over the objective and just ·as you
are turning back toward the lines, the enemy is especially
liable to attack. Do not loosen the formation. After the
formation recrosses the lines the leader will start a slow
glide to the airdrome. Never break the formation until
the signal for the break is given by the leader.
CHAPTER IV.
COMBAT.
(22) The bombardment formation avoids a fight if pos­sible.
Its strength and safety lie in a close formation,
which has concentration of machine-gun fu-e. If the for­mation
is close, you will seldom be attacked except by a
very large enemy patrol. When a formation is attacked
your fu-st duty is to keep your place in the formation.
Whenever you are attacked it will be either from the side,
slightly in front, or from the rear, and below the tail.
These are the so-called dead angles of the airplane. When
attacked the leader will S and you will fly a zigzag course
(never in a straight line). This will confuse the aim of
the enemy and give your observer good chances to shoot.
Never let the leader's S-ing or your own zigzag course
cause you to lose your place in the formation. If you
never fly a straight line, and yet always keep in the for­mation,
you are comparatively safe.
(23) Antiaircraft fu-e is effective only in so far as it
affects your morale and thus breaks up your formation.
19050-20-2
9
The leader will avoid it by constant, though slight, changes
in altitude. Whenever attacked by heavy antiaircraft
fire close up the formation and trust the leader to keep
you out of range of the antiaircraft guns.
(24) If your observer is wounded, or if your airplane is
slightly out of control, you will take a position well toward
the front of the formation. If you are flying one of the
fu-st six airplanes in the formation, you are already in the
safest part of the form!J,tion and need not change your
position. Engine trouble may cause you to drop out of
the formation. In that case glide for your own side of
the lines in a rapidly changing zigzag course. If the for­mation
is broken up by combat, you will still follow the
leader. If you can not find him, you will join another
airplane of the formation; you will join two airplanes in
preference to one.
CHAPTER V.
FORCED LANDINGS.
FORCED LANDINGS WITHIN YOUR OWN LL ES.
(25)• If you have a forced landing within your own
lines, your first duty is to notify your squadron commander
of your whereabouts and the condition of your airplane.
You will then remove all detachable instruments, such as
altimeters, clocks, etc., and secure a guard for the airplane
from the nearest detachment of troops. You will return
to your squadron at the earliest opportunity.
FORCED LANDINGS WITHIN THE ENEMY LINES.
(26) Your fu-st duty is to set fu-e to the airplane. You
may do this by opening the gasoline line and setting it on
fire or by firing into the gasoline tank with the observer's
guns.
Your second duty is to try to escape. If you are cap­tured,
you must be always on your e;uard not to give any
information to the enemy.
PART III.- BOMBARDMENT OBSERVER'S MANUAL.
CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY DUTIES.
ASSIG N::lfENT.
(27) After having completed his training in the schools
and training centers the observer will l::e ordered. to report
to a squadron for active duty . The ot ser rnr will gen­erally
l::e assigned together with his pilot as a team and
consideration will be given to the preferences of the team
as to the particular squadron to which they are to be
assigned for work at the front.
REPORTING TO TEE SQUADRON.
(28) Upon arrival at the squadron. report promptly to
the group commander if the squadron is part of a group
and if not to the squadron commander for assignment to
duty . The squadron adjutant will also assign quarters.
The observer will carry all his proper orders with him
when reporting.
WHO TO SEE.
(29) The observet: will report as soon as practicable to
bis squadron commander for the purpose of acquainting
him as to his experience, training. etc. This is also a
customary courtesy. If the observer is not teamed with a
pilot be will be a£signed to one and he will promptly seek
him out and get acq uainted . He will report also to his
flight commander, if assigned to a regular fligh t . and be­come
familiar with the methods employed by him. The
observer will know the operations officer, t he branch in­telligence
officer, the ordnance officer. the radio officer,
and the crew of his airplane. By keeping in mind the
fact that he is new and inexperienced and by asking in­telligent
questions and at the same time displaying a will­ingness
for duty the observer will learn much of value
to him from all these sources.
JNFOlli\lATION TO BE SECURED FROM TEE OPERATIONS
OFFICER.
(30) The operations offi cer will inform the o'.:iserver of the
general sch eme of operations and what particular part his
will be during the first Rights OYer the lines. The oo­server
will study and lea,rn the work of his squadron in
order to equip himself intelligently for the ":ork at hand.
It is necessary that the o~server carry out his missions so
well that he will fit harmoniously into the smooth working
whole. Especially will te:tm work be developed between
pilot and ooserver. Accuracy in aerial gunnery will be
m1,intained by frequent practice over the ground target.
PRELIMINARY WORK IN TEE OPERATIONS ROOM.
(31) The o'.Jserver will spend the greater part of his spare
time in the operations room. The terrain oYer which the
squadron is operating will be made a subject of constant
study by the observer. Especially will he study the
J/200,000, 1/60,000, and 1/20,000scalemaps. Thel/ 200,000
map will show our own lines and the enemy lines and the
dispositions of all our forces and of those enemy forces
al:out which inform3,tion has been o')tained from our own
intelligence servi ce. The 1/-50,000 and 1/20,000 scale map
will be used on the o°'.)server's m'1p board.
A file of all photographs which have been t'tken of the
sector arranged and ind exed for reference will be found in
the operations room. The o'Jserver will study these care­fully
Upon the o'Jserver's knowledge of the terrain often
depends the success of the mission. The best method of
learning the terrain by h eart is as follows: Go over one
small section of a map (say 10 miles square) until you can
dose yom eyes and visualize the shapes of the woods,
ro:td forks. rivers, etc. , then turn your back and try to
sketch this map from memory . Compare your sketch
with the original and repe:tt until you can reprod uce that
section of the map perfectly . Continue this process. get­ting
in a half hour's work a day until you have covered
your entire sector. To vary the work, a reverse process
is alternated with it. Another observer sketches on a
blank sheet of paper a corner of a town, a road fork, a road
crossing, a stream, or other distinctiYe features and the
o' server endeavors to name it from memory . Another
good method will be found in the "zigsaw puzzles. " A
map of the sector pa£ted on stiff cardboard or beaYer board
is cut up in irregular squares, triangles, and rectangles.
These will be shuffled in a heap and the observer will put
the pieces together so as to form the complete map. The
o'... serYer should time himself and ende'.1vor to red uce the
time necessary to piece the m:tp together as he progresses.
Remember that you will fly in all sorts of weather and that
it is often difficult to keep oriented with the ground .
Know ledge o[ the sector is essential to success in the air.
CIIAPTER II.
THE FIRST MISSION.
PREPARATIONS.
(32) The observer will prepare a map board for use in
the air. This is made of strong tJ-\tee-ply Yeneered wood
or heavy board obtained from the operations office or
squadron supply. The best form of board is made in three
divisions, each division being about H by 26 inches in
size, the pieces being glued together by linen hinges: A
map scale 1/50,000 of the sector over which the squadron is
operating will then be pasted firmly on one side of the
board. On the reYerse side of the board will be pasted a
1/200,000 scale map showing the front lines and the impor­tant
parts of the sector, objectives, etc. Care will be taken ·
not to mark any points on our side of the lines so as to giye
intelligence to the enemy in case of a forced landing within
the enemy's lines.
In addition to full flying equipment drawn from the
squadron supply, the observer 11-ill have assigned to him a
machine gun, probably double or twin guns. Make a note
(11)
12
of the number of this gun for future reference. The ob­server
will take 600 rounds of ammunition, which will be
issued to him in magazines. This ammunition will be cali­brated
and the proportionate tracers, etc., loaded by the
armament officer. A careful observer will see that his
ammunition is properly calibrated before it is loaded in the
magazines. He will be sure that the numbers on the mag­azines
and the number on the gun correspond and will try
all magazines on the gun to see that they fit properly.
The surplus magazines will then be placed in the racks
provided for this purpose in the observer's cockpit. The
observer will test his guns before a raid and make sure by
firing a few rounds that they are functjoning properly. _
The observer will carefully inspect the observer's cock­pit
of the airplane assigned to him and will make sure that
all instruments and pyrotechnics have been-placed therein.
He will examine the Very pistols and make sure that a
supply of cartridges of the proper colors for all signals are in
the racks. The thin paper on the cap of the cartridges will
be scraped away with a knife to prevent any misfire. In
case of misfire with a Very pistol in the air the observer will
not, under any circumstances, bring the pistol back in the
airplane, but will throw it away. · This will prevent the
possibility of delayed discharge of the cartridge in the ma­chine,
which would set it on fire. ·
The observer will carry several pencils and some blank
paper for notes or a notebook, a reliable wrist watch and a
pocket compass. In addition he will insp~ct the c~mpass
and clock in the cockpit to see that they are working prop­erly.
The observer will always synchronize his watch
with the radio officer's prior to a raid.
The observer will inspect the bomb racks, see that the
bomb-release gear is in good order and that the bombs are
properly fastened to the racks. If incendiary bombs are
carried the observer will be sure that he knows ,;,here the
special release is located and that it is working. In case of
a forced landing or retmn before the objective is reached
the incendiary bombs will be released in enemy territory,
but never in the vicinity of friendly troops or thickly
settled friendly country. Landing with incendiary bombs
is very dangerous and will be made only where una­voidable.
The observer will get in the airplane before a raid in
time to make a thorough inspection, fasten his helmet,
goggles, etc., swing his guns around on the turret, see that
the turret tmns easily and that the guns are working prop­erly.
He will' be all ready when the signal to take-off is
given.
When taking off, the observer will note down the time
his airplane leaves the ground and will note the position
of the sun with respect to the line of flight and salient
features near the airdrome.
Prior to a raid the observer will always confer with his
pilot and discuss the coming mission, so that all points will
be thoroughly understood between them. A set of simple
signals will be arranged between pilot and observer in case
the airplane is not equipped with speaking tubes or in the
event of their failing to work. The leading observer and
deputy leader will be provided with reins for steering the
pilot over the objective.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN THE AIR FIRST.
(33) The first duty of the observerafterleavingtheground
is t-0 keep a sharp lookout foD the other airplanes of the for-mation,
so as to warn the pilot when another airplane is
heading across his course or diving down too close when
getting in formation. Remember the pilot's vision is ob­scured
at times and he is occupied with piloting the air­plane
and getting in formation and will rely on the observer
to point out airplanes approaching too closely from the rear
and sides.
After the airplanes are in formation the,. observer will
continue to keep an eye on the other airplanes in the
formation, to see that the intervals are being maintained.
The observer will pass on to the airplanes in rear any arm
signals from the leading observer, such as to "close up,"
etc.
After the formation has gained the proper altitude and
the signal is fired by the leading observer to "head for the
lines" a sharp watch must be maintained for enemy air­craft,
which is the constant menace to the success of the
mission. The leading observer will be occupied with
sighting and preparation for dropping _the bombs on the
objective and will rely on the observers in the rear to
watch for enemy attack, which will usually come from
the rear and as a rule after the formation has crossed the
enemy's lines.
The first indication of being over enemy territory will
be the fire from the antiaircraft batteries. This usually
proves somewhat disconcerting to the new observer, but
rarely is the fire effective at bombing altitudes. Heavy
antiaircraft fire usually means that the enemy pursuit is
not in the vicinity, whereas comparatively light fire from
the antiaircraft batteries or a sudden lull may be good
cause to look for enemy attack. The observer will keep
his guns warmed up by firing a few bursts now and then
in the enemy territory and by pulling back the cocking
handle rapidly in the inch or so of loose play.
The observer will endeavor to locate the antiaircraft
emplacements and pin point the hostile batteries on his
1/20,000 scale map so that they may be included in his
report. When the observer fills out his report it must in,
elude the following: Both his own name and the name of
the pilot, number of the airplane, time of leaving ground,.
time of crossing the enemy's lines, time bombs were
dropped, time lines were recrossed, time of return to
airdrome, route covered, and in the body of the report a
concise statement of the happenings on the mission, en­gagements
with the enemy, airplanes dropping out of
formation and location if brought down or forced landing
is made, number and weight of bombs dropped, hits ob­served
on the objective, firns in enemy territory, troop
movements, etc. Do not report anything doubtful. When
reporting; do not exaggerate anything you have seen.
Bear in mind that negative information may be just as
valuable as the reverse.
The first mission of the observer will not come until he
is thor~mghly familiar with his own back area from the
air. Sometimes this process has to be rushed, but ordi­narily
a new observer will. be kept flying over his own
back area a week or 1() days before he is sent over the
lines.
BOMBING THE OBJECTIVE.
(34) After the formation has crossed the lines and is
nearing the objective the observers in rear will watch the
leading airplane. The observer in the leading airplane
will do the sighting and make the necessary calculations
for hitting the objective. The leading observer when he
/
13
has set bis sight propi>rly and completed bis calculations
will foe the " Prepare to bomb" signal as the objective
comes wi thin t he fast line of the sight. The other ob­servers
in the formation (or the pilot M the case may be)
will then release the safety catch on the bomb-release gear
and watch for the bombs to fall from the leading airplane.
When t he born bs are seen to drop from the leacling airplane
all observers will pull the release lever, releasing their
bombs. If incendiary bombs are carried , the observer
will,immediately pull t he special release and will be sure
that all •bombs have dropped from the airplane. If any
have not left t he racks, the observer will pull the rnlease
again. After he has dropped bis bombs the observer will
watch closely to observe the· bursts and will make notes
df bits on the objective as well as bombs which are seen to
·burst astray.
The observer ·in the rear will make a point of watching
for enemy attack all the while and will not allow himself
to become oblivious to what is happening in the air while
engaged in born.bing the objective. The observers in the
center of the formation will be relied upon to observe the
bmsts on the objective, while the observers flying in the
rear will watch for enemy attack. The enemy will be
most likely to attack a bombing formation while over the
objective or after the bombs have beeu dropped and the
formation haYing made a turn is headed for the lines. If
any ob.server sights enemy airplanes and the other observ-,
ers do not appear to have seen them he will .Eire the warning
signal so that the formation may close up and the other
observers will be on the alert .
The principles governing the.combat will be dealt with
in a subsequent chapter under the head of " General
combat principles. ''
After the formation has recrossed the lines the danger
from enemy attack becomes more remote. Enemy air­planes
will seldom follow the formation far into our own
territory. ·when clanger from en emy attack is no longer
imminent the leader of the formation begins a slow glide
to the airclrome. The formation will break upon the
signal from the leader and will land in the orcle1' in which
the formation took off. Here again the observer will be
on the alert to warn bis pilot of airplanes taking off or
landing across his course.
GROUND PREPARATION FOR REGULAR ASSIGNll.!E'.'/T.
(35) The squadron will be divided into three flights, and
the observer in the regular course will fly one clay, be on
the alert on the day following, and will have the nex t day
off except during very active operations. Until he is
thoroughly familiar wi th his work the observer will spend
his spare time in studying bis work, preparing his missions,
calibrating bis ammuni tion , practicing with bis machine
gun, and in aerial gunnery practice with his pilot.
The observer can not give too much attention to bis·
machine guns and will become very familiar with their
mechanism by working wi th them_ in the armory. The
observer will calibrate bis ammunition the llight before
a raid, putting in a tracer bullet every third and an
incendiary bullet every fourth one.
The observer will arrange with bis pilot to fly over to'
some n ear-by range. There will usually be a small lake
on which a target is placed, and both the observer and
pilot can practice shooting at it. The observer will not
under any circumstances neglect constant aerial gunnery
practice, however good he may have been in the schools
at this work. Constant practice is necessary to keep on
edge.
Study aerial photographs. The observer can never
exhaust this subject.
Facility in map reading will help the observer in bis
work . Study the maps for salient features in, the terrain .
Rivers, national highways, lakes, and can als are the most
striking features to be observed. These can he readily
picked up on the map.
The best method for the observer to follow in familiar­izing
himself with enemy airplanes is to study carefully
at first all types of airplanes used by our own and allied
forces from different angles. He will fix carefully in his
mind the distinguishing characteristics of these airplanes.
He will then· study all t yp es of enemy airpla'nes and the
formations in which they are in the habit of flying. While
in the air the observer will not allow any strange airplanes
to get too close to him. The observer ,vill be ready for
surprise and will have bis guns trained on the strange
airplanes. If t heir actions are suspicious a few bursts
fired at them will result in their showing their colors or
drawing off if they a re friendly.
CHAPTER III.
RECONNAISSANCE.
RECONNAISSANCE DURING' BOMBARDMENT RAIDS.
(36) The bombing of the assigned objectiYes is the fun­damental
purpose of bombardment flying. Visual recon­naissance
will be to some extent conducted by the hom­bardment
formation during a raid , however, and informa­tion
gath ered in this manner has often proved very
valuable to the other arms of the service. Every branch
of the Air Service will conduct reconnaissance of enemy
movements on the ground and in thB air at all times
whenever possible. Constant watchfulness over the
enemy is at all times necessary, else he may be able to
make bis preparations unnoticed and lau nch an unex­pected
attack. It is i mpossible to conceal from · aerial
observation all signs of pri>parations for an offensive, and
it is by mea ns of frequent reconnaissance that these signs
are detected.
It is not intended that the bombing formations will
sacrifice the efficiency of their fundamental purpose in
order to conduct reconnaissance missions, but going to
and returning from the obj ective the observers ,,ill use
the opportunity of conducting such observations of enemy
movements as is possible. From time to time special
insh·uctions will be received from the branch intelligence
officer to watch for enemy movements in the territory.­over
which the formation will pass.
WH.~T '.rO LOOK FOR.
(37) The formation will fly at altitudes, from 1,200 to
1,500 feet, and therefore observations will be of general
nature. The observer will look p ar ticularly for move­ments
on roads and railroads and be able to give the size
and direction of the movement. Railroad yards and rail
heads will be carefully watched. Marked fluctuations
of activity in such p laces are valuable-indications of the
enemy's intentions . . The observer will look for new
ammunition and supply dumps, cantonments, and air­dromes.
As the observer becomes better accustomed to
the work he will be able to identify enemy long-range
14
b~.ttery emplacements, railroad-gun switches, and anti­aircraft
batteries. The observer will particularly look
for changes which the enemy has made in his defensive
organization, such as new roads or railroads, or . repairs
made on old ones.
In the air the observer will watch for enemy aerial
activity, such as concentrations of enemy air· forces, and
will report identity of the types of enemy airplanes a;nd
balloons. ·
CHAPTER IV.
PHOTOGRAPHIC ASSIGNMENTS.
us'E OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN BOMBARDMENT RAIDS.
(38) In every bombardment formation one or two air­planes
will be designated to take photographs of the objec­tives
before and aher the bombs have been dropped. · The
observers designated for this duty will be those best
qualified to take photographs and most familiar with aerial
cameras. The first thing for an observer to do to become
a good aerial photographer is to thoroughly familiarize
himself with the manipulation of the different kinds of
cameras. Two types are now being used, the hand camera
and the mounted camera. The hand camera is the mobile
type provided with handles so that the observer can
swing it out over the side, while the mounted camera is
stationary, mounted inside the'observer's cockpit, focus­ing
through a hole cut in the fuselage.
PREPARATIONS.
(39) Before _going up to take photographs the observer
will make sure that the photographic section has shifted
the plates on all the maga7,ines through at least once and
will try the shutter and cocking mechanisms himself.
He will make sure the camera is set properly for existing
light conditions. He will take plenty of extra magazines.
The observer will arrange with the pilot exactly how he
is to fly when the photographs are being taken. Maneu­vering
to get in position with reference to sun, wind, etc. ,­is
of course not poss1ble, since the . pilot's first duty is to
keep in formation, but he will be able to fly steadily and
in other ways aid the observer in taking the photographs.
The observer will handle his camera carefully. If a
magazine jams do not jerk it, for this may result iμ broken
glass getting in the shutter and putting the camera out of
comm1ss10n. If easy working of the camera back and
forth doesn't clear the jam, change maga:ilihes.
V:lhen .the observer has returned to the airdrome he will·
go at once to the photographic section. Inform the pho­tographic
officer the sequence in which the magazines
were used and h elp him to locate and identify the pictures.
If the results are not as good as t hey should be, find out
what mistakes have been made, so t'jlat they will not be
repeated. The work of plotting and identification is clone
by the photographic officer and the interpretation by the
branch intelligence officer, but the observer will find it
very in structive to watch them work and will learn to do
this work himself.
The branch intelligence. officer and the operations officer
will issue special instructions to the photographic observer
as to any special photographs desired .
( 40) For further details refer to chapter on "Aerial
photography" in "Aerial observation for all arms."
CHAPTER V.
SPECIAL MISSIONS.
NECESSITY.
(41) During an emergency, bombardment airplanes,
pilots, and observers may be used for special missions, or
the duties as outlined herein may be performed in con­junction
with bombardment raids.
ATTACKING GROUND TROOPS, CONVOYS, TRE.NCHES .
(42) This may be a special mission or may be per­formed
in connection with low-altitude bombing.
Though the material damage is not great, the attack by
low-flying airplanes on enemy troops, convoys, and posi­tions
. is very -valuable for breaking down their morale.
Both the pilot and observer will be subjected to attack.
irom the ground and from the air and this work requires
cool judgment and constant watchfulness. Wl).en attack­ing
ground troops both the pilot and observer will keep a
sharp watch for enemy aircraft, since if occupied with
shooting at the ground they o.ffer an easy target. After the
pilot has dived on 1f ground target, he will pull up and to
the si,le. The observer will arrange previously with him
so that he will know to which side the pilot will pull off so
that he can have his guns ready. If low-altitude bombing
constitutes the object of the mission, the observer will
arrange to drop hie bombs on the objective before machine
gunning the ground troops.
COURIER MISSIONS.
(43) The pilot and observer may be sent on a courier
mission to carry dispatches, orders, or photographs. The
observer will know to whom they are to be delivered and
the exact destination. If there is no landing field at the
destination the message, etc ., will have to be dropped .
The observer will be sure that the men on the ground
know that he intends dropping them a message. Se can
get their attention by firing a prearranged signal. The
pilot will fly low over the place where the observer is to
drop the message. If there are no trees or wires, he can
com!c) clown safely to 100 feet. The ability to drop mes­sages
accurately is mainly a matter of practice, and the
observer will take- advantage of every opportunity at the
airdrome to perfect himself in this respect . Before drop­ping
the photographs or dispatches the observer will be
sure they are addressed legibly and tied together with
heavy cord. The observer will watch where they fall
and will wait till he sees· some one pick them up before
returning.
PROPAGANDA DROPPING.
(44) This mission will usually be combined with a
bombing raid. If it is a distinct mission the airplanes
will go far enough into the lines to insure a distribution
on towns, cantonments, etc. Usually the propaganda is
tied up in bundles. The observer will cut the strings
before tossing it overboard, so that it will scatter, but he
will be very careful about throwing it so that it will not
catch in the tail of the airplane. If the mission involves
going a long ways into enemy territory, the observer will
get rid ot all the propaganda before turning back toward
the lin"5
15
CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL COMBAT PRINCIPLES.
ll'IACffiNE GUNS.
· (45) The observer will have received thorough training
in the care of machine guns and calibration of .ammuni­tion
before joining the squadron. Ile will never allow
himseif to forget this knowledge and will keep in constant
practice. As a rule the armament officer will prefer
that the care or the machine guns and. calibration of
ammunition be left entirely to him, but the observer will
exercise close supervision over his own guns and will
superintend any particular form of sight or shoulder plate
that he wishes mounted.
When the observer gets in his cockpit, his sole responsi­bility
for the guns will begin. With a Lewis, puU back
the cocking handle of each gun and test the weight of
the spring recoil. Do not, however, cock the guns till
you are in the air. Put on the drums and be sure they
are firmly set on the magazine post and turn when you
pull on .the cocking handle. Take a look at the barrel
mouthpiece and your front and rear sights. Be sure
that you have an extractor of some sort ready to hand
where it _can not be lost. With the drums on, raise the
guns and swing the tourelle, making sure the elastic tension
is strong enough to hold them up and that the tourelle
swings easily without catching or grating. Examine
the extra ammunition drums in the racks, fitting each
one on the guns to see that no jam will occur when placed
on the magazine post. Be sure that the strap is buckled
up so that the hand slips in easily and yet holds the drum
tightly. Be sure that they are all laid the same way
in the rack so that one can be gotten out without looking
at it and while sti11 firing the o.ther .gun.
GENERAL CAUTIONS.
(46) The· observer will when putting on gunners belt
be sure that the side straps are buckled enough so that
the touelle can be moved without swinging the shoulders
on it. Have all the loose cartridge shells taken off the
cockpit floor as they will ruin the security of the observer's
footing. When ready, turn the guns pointing at right
angles to the airplane and then set them pointing back
toward the rear. This is the best position in which to
have them in case of a forced landing and minimizes the
possibility of their coming down on the observer's head.
Test the speaking tube and make sure that the extension
is long enough so that when standing up there is no danger
of snapping it. As soon as the engine is running test
out the exact tone of voice at which the pilot can hear you
best and the best distance from which to speak into the
mouthpiece. Never vary this later and never shout, no
matter how great the emergency.
When taxying out look behind for airplanes about to
land and be ready to warn the pilot. In taking off and
landing the observer will always raise his goggles as a
precaution against their being broken against the tourelle.
While gaining altitude or circling the field before
getting in formation the observer will relax and will not
increase wind resistance by standing up, being very
careful to keep a sharp lookout for other airplanes getting,
in the pilot's course and keeping track of the other air­planes
of the formation.
As soon as the airplane has gained a reasonable altitude
above the field the observer will cock both guns and turn
them directly behind and at the top extension of the
bracket. This takes the tension off the elastic suspension
and is the easiest position in which to have them for
quick work, since most attacks come from the rear quarter.
When the observer has crossed the lines he will fire a
few bursts ,Yith each gun, being careful to warn th~ pilot
beforehand, and will keep his guns wa:i;med up from time
to time in this manner. He will not put his safety catch
on afterward until he is over his own :field. He will
remember th a the is flying a high altitude and that having
fired a few bmsts this must be repeated every few minutes
to prevent the mechanism from sticking. '
The observer will endeavor to keep oriented at all
times. Although flying in formation, the possibility of
dropping out or becoming separated from the formation
renders this a vital necessity. If the observer loses track
of where he is, he will tell the pilot immediately, and the
chances are that both will not be lost at the same instant.
If the observer waits upon the assun1ption that the pilot
knows where he is he may be assuming the same thing
with regard to the observer. All the time you are getting
farther away · from the last known place and orientation
will be more difficult the longer you fly. :For rough
orientation notice how the sun throws the· shadows of your
struts, wings, or machine guns when you leave the field
and make a mental note of' how they should be two or
tluee hours later when going in the opposite dfrection. ·
After a long flight you are likely to be entirely lost unless
you know a large sector of the country. Orienting by
the sun, if done properly, is the best way of getting back ,
unless your compass has been thoroughly adjusted and
compensated and you have perfect conftde.nce in it.
WATCHING THE AIR.
(47) In watching the ai.J: remember that on a clear day
an airplane becomes visible to you from 8,000 to 10,000
yards away. A good p{usuit airplane can dive at from
200 to 300 miles an hour, depending on the angle of the
dive, etc. Thus it would take an enemy pursuit airplane
diving on you at from 2.50 to 350 feet per second from about
60 seconds to 95 seconds to get within good striking dis­tance,
which may be estimated at 2,000 yards. vVhile
these figures vary with conditions, they give some idea
of what may be expected under norm:iJ favorable condi­tions.
These conditions seldom exist. There are almost
always clouds in the sky from above which offer conceal­ment
to enemy airplanes. There are often conditions of
glaring sun, grnund haze, mist, etc., which make the
observer's work even more difficult. It is much more
difficult for enemy airplanes to surprise an entire bombing
formation that solitary observ!!,tion airplanes or small
pursuit formations but the necessity for each observer .
keeping constantly on the alert nevertheless exists.
The observer will figure on going over the entire circuit
of the visible sky with his eyes at least once every 50
seconds, under the most favorable conditions, and on an
average day at least once every 30 seconds. The best
way to do this is to start ra1.-ing the sky with your eyes,
beginning and ending at the sun. The sun is always
your most dangernus spot and will be accordingly given
twice as much attention as any other part of the sky. At
first it seems impossible to keep the horizon and the whole
16
arc of t.he sky, under such continuous observation and at
the same time see anything of the ground, but after a few
weeks it becomes automatic. The principle thing for the
observer to remember is to Keep his head and e:yes moving
all the time when over the enemy's lines and never to
stare fixedly at one spot. If the observer sees something
on the ground or in the air that requires careful observation
and ctne glance is not enough to estimate it, look away,
cover the sky and then look quickly back. The observer
will find that his eyes will serve him much better this way
thaii. if he kept them focused on the spot continuously,
As soon as the' muscles of the eyes and neck become ac­customed
to this .the strain on the eyes will become mini­mized.
The same thing will be true of the body. The
observei· will endeavor to avoid keeping bis whole body
in a nervous tension. Some, observers get satisfactory
results from sitJ::ing down except when actually sight ing
or working their guns but t he majority prefer to stand up
when over the lines.
PICKING UP AIRPLAN]']S IN THE AIR.
(48) The n ecessity of focusing the eyes euters largely
into the question of pickin" up airplanes in the air. If
the eyes are focused to the distance at which an airplane
appears as a little black clot, you may very easily miss the
airplane at the distance at which it fills your ring sight,
and vice versa. In watching the sky the observer will not
forget to constantly change focus. This can be done by
looking' at the ground and then sweeping the sky with
yom eyes. Your eyes will hold that focus for some seconds.
Then look at distant clouds or the farthest part of the
horizon you can see, and sweep the sky with that focus.
It is smprising how you can make objects appear or dis­appear
by thus changing focus. In time the habit will
become automatic.
.As single airplanes or formations come into view, the
observer will announce them to his pilot. The pilot will do
the same for the observer. Tt is good practice. Each man
tries to be the fu-st to spot airplanes and it keeps you both
on the alert. Mter flying a long time without seeing any­thing,
the observer is inclined to rebx his vigilance a trifl e.
This may he the time when you are in most danger. If
there are any enemy airplanes who have spotted you , they
are maneuvering for position, and the fact that you have
not seen them means that they are skilled flyers.
Identify airplanes as qiμckly as possible. This can
often be clone at a great distance by the shape of their for­mation,
by their position over the lines, and whether or
out they are being shelled by the antiaircraft. The color of
the antiaircraft fire, where t he enemy is using different
types of ammU!lition from our antiaircraft, will furnish im­mediate
information. If you are being she}led by the
antiaircraft, and the fire snddenly ceases, the chances are
that the nearest formation to you is hostile. If you have
not been shelled by the antiaircraft for a long time and
suddenly receive one or two bursts and that is all, the
same thing is true.
The observer will study carefully the silhouettes of all
friendly and hostile airplanes in the operations office until
he is able to identify them instantly from any angle as
soon as they get close enough. This, however, is not
enough. When an enemy pursuit airplane gets close
enough for the observer to distinguish the characteristics
of the wings, tail, and fuselage, it is within striking dis­tance.
Identification, however, will make the observer
certain of it before he opens fu-e; but the observer will not
wait until he can identify an enemy airplane by its in­signia
before getting ready and having his guns in position
to open fu-e.
In watching for enemy airplanes be especially careful of
the most likely places. The most important is the sun.
Of course there is always a certain area, varying in di­ameter
with the range, in which it is impossible to see any­thing
on a bright day without dark goggles or a piece of
smoked glass. This area, however, is comparatively small.
By holding up your hand and covering the sun you can see
easily up to the very edge of this area all around. If an
enemy airplane is directly in the sun, he is likely to throw
his shadow on your wings or the ground below you. Some
observers turn their machine guns so they are directly in
the sun. By peeping around the edges of them they are
able to survey the area up to the sun itself, very easily.
·This will not he done, however, until the observer is sure
of himself, since otherwise his machine guns may conceal
an enemy airplane instead of re¥ealing it.
Another important area to watch is along the edges of
the clouds. Especially clouds 6,000 to 8,000 feet above
you. l'i-atch openings in the clouds carefully, especially
if they are directly above you. Keep track of the ground
below you and to the rear. Remember it is always harder
to ·see airplanes below you than above, especially if they
are well camouflaged and against a backgrcund of woods.
1Yatch behind your tail. Sometimes an enemy airplane
can sneak up very close behind before an observer is aware
of it.
Lastly, watch the area extending from your wings on
each side upward at an angle of about 30°. '
ATTACK ON DAY BOMBARDMENT FORMATION BY ENEMY
PATROL.
(49) The object of clay bombardment flying is to reach
the assigned objectives, bomb them, and return safely
to the airclrome. The bombardment airplane designed
for weight carrying capacity a.nd power is not suited
for offensive maneuvering against enemy pnrsuit air­planes
and thereforn offensive tactics against the enemy
in the air have no part in bombardment work. The
aerial combat tactics of the day bombing airplanes are
purely defensive and are confined to breaking up enemy
attacks upon the formation. The formation will never be
attacked by one enemy airplane. Generally there will
be from 9 to 18 airplanes in the day bombardment forma­tion
and the enemy may have from 5 to 40. There may
be 2, 3, or 4 enemy patrols.
The main thing to remember is that yom flight or for­mation
_leader is the man who is responsible and that he
must be follo,-ved absolutely. His orders given on the
ground will determine your tactics, except when entirely
cut off from the formation. Above all remember that
the pilot's supreme duty is to keep in formation and not
to lag or get behind when the formation closes up in the
face of impending enemy attack. This is the foremost
rnle of all formation flying and it is all important. Never
let your pilot or yourself forget it for an instant.
If your engine begins to go had and you a1·e not more
than 2 or 3 miles in enemy territory, the pilot will nose
down, increasing his speed that way, and will keep under
the formation rather than stay at their altitude losing
ground. Remember that the main principle of formation
flying is mutual protection. If your pilot is 500 yards
'
17
behind the nearest airplaine in the formation it can not
help you at all in case of attack. If you are 300 yards
they can not ne1p you until the enemy is within 100 or
200 yards of you and even then their fire will not be very
accurate. If you are below, they will be in a position
to help you out.
When an attack is threatened the formation leader will
close up the formation as much as possible immediately.
Do ii.ot make the mistak!l of thinking that an enemy pa­trol
is not going to attack because they ha Ye turned away
at right angles from their course toward you. . It is a
common practice to do this-do a reversement and dive
straight back on you. Or they may turn off at 45°, come
up in a :i:oom, slip off on a wing, t urn and be on you that
way.
When your formation is closed up, you must follow
eve1:y move of the formation leader closely. He will
_throttle down his engine so as to tighten up the formation
and will then increase his speed again. Clever handling
of the throttle by your pilot is called for to keep the for­mation
properly.
The enemy antiaircraft may firn on you some time be­fore
you are attacked in order to get you to spread out
your formation. In the face of enemy attack the forma­tion
leader will maneuver to avoid the antiaircraft and
the enemy fire and the formation will guide on him.
Each observer must feel that the safety of the whole
flight depends on the protection he is able to give to the
other airplanes of the formation.
A bombardment formation is rarely attacked from in
front except on rare occasions when the enemy is trying
to break up the formation at all costs (because the pilots
in trying to fire on the enemy are likely to pull up too far
and get out of _formation), and for the reallon that the
enemy nearly always attacks a bombardment formation
from the rear and from the side the bulk of the fighting
will fall on the observer. His pilot is busy keeping in ­formation
and the observer is protecting him as well as
the other airplanes in the formations.
The observer will always remember that the three most
important duties of the bombardment pilot and observer
during ll,n attack are to follow the formation leader implic­itly,
never lose the formation, and to protect the other
airplanes in the formation.
COMBAT PRI.KCJPLES DUR[NG 'l'H E ATTACK.
(50) Enemy _patrols usually attack by coming up to
within 400 or 500 yards in formation and firing one by one
or splitting and driving simultaneously from two sides.
The latter method is much more effectiYe. Ordinarily
inexperienced enemy pmsuit flights or formations will
maneuver as best they can aud then attack in a series of
straight dives or zooms one hy one. This form of attack
is not difficult to meet and one bombardment observer
will be able to handle two or three enemy pursuit air­planes
attacking in this way. The observer will remember
to keep cool, hold his fire until the enetny is within effec­tive
range, and then open up with bursts of five or six
shots. As a rule the enemy will turn off before he gets _
close. The observer will remember .that an enemy air­plane
which goes down in a tail spin has not necessarily
been shot down. Be on your guard for such airplanes
climbing back at you from the side.
With more experienced enemy pilots attacking in this
manner. there will be a considerable difference in the
various dives. one or more seeking to draw your fire off on
either side while another heads in at close quarters to get
you.
Maneuvering will be of little use and is practically sure
of getting you out of formation. Diving is fatal. If you
are above 15,000 feet the chances are good that you will be
able to outrun the enemy pursuit and that they will not
be able to get in more than one dive apiece.
At middle heights your pilot can only keep the airplane
at the maximum speed _of the formation an,d trust to the
observer's fire holding the enemy of[. He will swing the
tail back and forth and up and down a little, just enough
to give the observer's guns play, unless this is bound to
reduce the speed of the airplane too much. This will serve
to throw the enemy off somewhat on his aim.
The best thing for the observer to do is to conserve his
fire and never let both magazines get empty at once. It
is for such contingencies as this that he has two guns.
The observer will have to change one magazine while the
other gun is shooting.
When the first enemy airplane dives, open up on him
at about 400 yards with groups of two or thrne bursts. to
drive him off as quickly as possible. From his sul::sequent
actions you should be able to tell whether or not he is the
source of greatest clanger. Thereafter keep your guns on
the nearest airplane and where the distance is not over
400 yards aim with your tracers always a little below him
at close range and a little above him at ranges beyond 250
yards (a tracer has a tendency to rise) and fire in buxsts of
four or five with one gun only. If the ob.server's fire is
regular and not frantic the enemy will be less inclined to
close in. Be careful about swinging yom guns from one
enemy airplane to another, as that loses you valuable time
between shots. If you have determined which is the best
enemy pilot keep your guns on him even though some other
airplane is slightly n earer.
When one of the enemy airplanes goes down, unmis­tab.
bly out of control, do riot relax for an instant, although
the chances are the fight is over. Concentrate on the
next nearest one and if you have plenty of a=unition
left speed up the frequency of yom; bmsts a little. Two
seater airplanes in formation with observers who 1.-now
how to conduct a running fight with enemy pursuit air­planes
always have the best of it, and the enemy will not
chance going far over our own lines because of clanger
from our own pmsuit; which will usually furnish an escort
for clay bombing missions.
The method of attack where an enemy pursuit forma­tion
splits and dives simultaneously from two sides, is
much harder to meet. In this case they are all probably
good pilots and probably equally experienced. It then
becomes necessary for the observer to swing his guns
much more. There is nothing to be gained by opening
up at too long a range. Keep your fire well distributed
on the airplane nearest you and swing your gui:is as
quickly as possible. Use bursts of five or six. Aim
with your tracers at close distances a<Ilcl keep the airplane
you intend to fire on next in view out of the corner of
your eye. As soon as you have finished a burst swing on
the next man and so back and forth. Remember there
are very few pursuit pilots who are willing to take even
chances with an observer at point blank range.
The observer will not depend entirely on his tracers,
especially at distances more than 300 yards. Tracers
while very good indicators at close distances are· not
dependable at more than 300 yards and are misleading.
The observer must rely on his sights using the propel'
deflection.
CONCLUSION.
(51) The principles set forth hereiu are intended
merely as a guide as no hard and fast rules can be laid
down regarding aerial combat. Circumstances vary and
altering conditions make rigid rules· impossible. The
observer mu~t think quickly and adopt the best method
18
of meeting surprise tactics on the part of the enemy pur­suit.
Above all he must be an expert gunner. The
necessity of utilizing the great protection afforded by a ·
close compact formation must be constantly borne in
mind by every bombardment pilot and observer for this is
the greatest factor of safety. The observer will as he
becomes more experienced in fighting over the lines
develop his own peculiarities and individual tactics but
team work is the essence of effective fighting in formation
and the observer's efficiency will always be measured by
his ability to cooperate with the other pilots and observers
of the formatio·n.
(j
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