Notes for pursuit pilots

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AIR SERVICE INFORMATION ~fRCULAR
(HEAVIER-THAN-AIR)
PUBLISHED BY THE DIRECTOR OF AIR SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Vol. I June 30, 1920 No. 87
NOTES FOR PURSUIT PILOTS
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Prepared by Training and Operations Group
Office Director of Air Service
THE FOLLOWING JS PUBLISHED FOR INFORMATION ONLY. THE VIEWS
EXPRESSED ARE NOT NECESS:11.RIL Y THOSE OF THE DIRECTOR OF
AIR SERVICE. NOTHING HEREIN IS TO BE CONSTRUED AS AN ORDER
OR DIRECTION WITH WRICH STRICT COMPLIANCE IS NECESSARY
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1920
Ralph Brown Draughon
LIBRARY
MAR 27 2013
Non-Depoitory
Auburn University
.,l
NOTE.
This pamphlet is written in the language of certain pilots who saw active service overseas in the World War. It
is written in such a form that it can be used easily as a book upon which to prepare lectures in active service units or
be available for ready reference for officers.
It has neither been reviewed nor approved by the Director of Afr Service or the General Staff, but is left in its
original state in the hope that students in using it will be able to understand and profit by the overseas experience
of these officers.
(2)
NOTES FOR PURSUIT PILOTS I
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The Flight Commander's Manual-The Pursuit Pilot's Manual- The Night Pursuit · Pilot's Manual-The Two-seater
Pursuit Pilot's Manual- The Two-seater Pursuit Gunner's Manual.
I. THE PURSUIT FLIGHT COMMANDER'S MANUAL.
FoREWORD-COMMAND OF THE FLIGHT-ORGANIZING A NEw FLIGHT--PREPARATION FOR PATR01r-EN Rou·rE
FOR THE LINES-UPON CROSSING THE LINES-LOCATING ENEMY AND P LANNING AT'l'ACK-COMBAT-kr THE
END OF PATROir----UPON LANDING-ENTIRE SQUADRON ACTING AS .A SINGLE PATROir----LEADING THE LOWER
FLIGH'l~LEADING MIDDLE. FLIGHT--LEADING TOP FLIGHT-PRINCIPLES OF ECHELON FORMATION-R ECEIVING A
REPLACEllIE T.
FOREWORD.
The evolution 6i formation fighting and the almost
complete disappearance of single-handed pursuit have
taken most of the problems of tactics and conduct away
from the individual pilot and placed them in the hands
of the Pursuit Flight Commander or the leader of the for­mation.
The greatest success ha6 been attained by those
flights which were best able to work together as a single
unit, to fly with perfect teamwork and cooperation.
· To this end the command of the flight must rest at all
times in the hands of the Flight Commander and the
members of his flight must be disciplined subordinate
officers who have the utmost confidence in and respect for
their leader and are trained to follow and work absolutely
as he wishes.
The position of the Flight Co=ander is therefore a
most important one. On his ability, more than any other
one thing, will depend the success or failure of pmsuit
aviation. He must be able to command the respect and
win the friendship of the officers and men under him.
He must be a man who embodies the offensive, combative
spirit which is the keystone of successful pursuit. It is
hecessary that he should have had at least two months of
active, intensive experience as a pilot over the lines in a
pursuit flight, and should have some victories to his
credit.
However, it is not always the man with the largest
number of victories to his credit who will make the most
successful Flight Co=ander, and there have been i'h­stances
of Flight Commanders who have been able to
lead a flight to a long record of victories and yet never
achieve on.e themselves. The proper command of a
flight in the air often hampers the Flight Commander in
achieving personal victories as bis duties will more often
be to keep a watch from above on the flight during com­bat,
after he has led the attack past the first dive.
It is essential that the Flight Co=ander have perfect
eyesight and an exceptional ability to find the enemy in
the air from any angle. He must have a thoroui[h knowl­edge
of the sector over which he will lead his flight. He
must be thoroughly experienced in the abilities and per­formances,
not only of the type of airplane in use by his
flight, but those of other friendly squadrons and of the ·
enemy. It is· essential, too, that he be well acquainted
with other friendly flights working over the same area
and all allied aviation likely to demand cooperation or
protection from his flight. He must be able to recognize
them in the air and know each one 's p ersonal tactics.
He must at all times have well in mind the general tactical
policies of the service and the Army as a ~hole and be
willing to shape his work accordingly.
He must, above all, have the type of mind which is
able to grasp instantly the many variable factors in an
aerial situation; reason out the probabilities and the neces­sary
decisions definitely and without delay . H e will be
continuously eager and on the alert for new knowledge
and information bearing on his work.
The attempt to establish any fixed set of rules to govern
his conduct, or the laying down of an ironclad set of tactics
to be followed, is, in the opinion of every experienced
pilot, an impossibility. Could a set of rules be worked out
for every conceivable condition, every position, strength,
altitude, time, sun, atmospheric condition, and tactical
situation, for any single type of airplane, the fast radical
change in type of airplane to one having only slightly dif­erent
performance features would probably make more of
the rules wrong than right. With the possibilities of rapid
and wide changes in the design and maneuverability of
single-seater pursuit airplanes it is clear, therefore, that
this sh ould not be attempted. The only satisfactory solu­tion
is experience and ability on the part of the Flight Com­mander
himself.
This manual is written, therefore, not with the idea of
being of use so much to the Flight Commander himself as to
the new pilot, to show him some of the more firmly fixed
principles upon which his F light Commander will work.
(3)
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COMMAND OF THE FLIGHT.
The Flight Commander will be responsible to the Squad­ron
Commander for all officers, men, and equipment in
his flight. He will command his flight as if i t were a small
squadron . He will know each airplane and gun in his
fligh t as if it were his own. He will issue such orders as
pertain to his flight and they will carry as much weight as
though issued by the Squadron Commander himself. He
will lead his flight to the best of his judgment, always
fighting to attain his mission. While in the air he is com­mander
of his flight and will lead it accordingly.
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Upon his recommendation a pilot will be released from
duty and sent to a replacement camp. Upon his recom­mendation
a pilot will be taken off of war flying and given
a rest. Upon his recommendation any airplane or equip­ment
which endangers the life of a pilot will be recom­mended
as useless. H e will recommend to the Squad­ron
Commander pilots and enlisted men deserving of
awards. He will make recommendations for promotions­due
in his flight. The senior Flight Commander will at
all times command the squadron in the absence of the
Squadron Commander.
ORGANIZING A NEW FLIGHT.
A Flight Commander will always have an experi enced
pilot who will be known as "Deputy Commander," to
assist him when organizing a new flight.
The Deputy Commander will assist the Flight Com­mander
in the training of new pilots in target practice.
fighting, acrobatics, formation flying , compass flying, and
bomb dropping. During this training the Flight Com­mander
will pick a reliable, steady pilot for No. 3 in the
formation. (See diagram.) For Nos. 4 and 5 he will
, choose watchful and alert pilots who will avoid surprise
from the rear. They will rank themselves according to
their number in formation. After giving them their
positions in formation , frequent rehearsals will be given.
All signals and methods of attack will be practice_d.
This practice will enable the pilots to become accustomed
to the Fligh,t Commander 's flying so that the pilots will
understand and even :J,nticipate each move he makes in
the air.
The following signals will be used in formation flying:
1. Moving stick right and left back of lines : ."Break up
formation.' '
2 . Moving stick right and left over lines: "Enemy
aircraft present. ' '
3. Moving stick forward, and backward: "Engine is
bad. Must return to airdrome.''
4. A harl' roll: "Flight Commander intends to dive at
least 3,000 feet.''
5. A full roll: "The three prearranged pilots are to
attack the enemy below.''
6. Any color of Very's light during a combat: "Break
off the combat.''
7. Any color _Qf Very's light after a combat: " I am the
Flight Commander ; join me."
8. A red Very's ligh t: " Distress ; come to my aid." -
9. A short machine-gun burnt will be used to attract
the pilot's attention ahead,.
10. Each airdrome will have a combination of colors
which will be used at dusk to assist pilots in locating their
airdrome upon returning from a late patrol, and tbe
Flight Commander is responsible that he and all his
pllots understand and make use of these signals.
During practice formation each pilot will be asked to
gi ve· the course of the patrol, number and type of air­craft
sighted, time and location of any noticeable explo­sions
or events, time and location of a~y attack made,
and any other feature of likely value.
The Flight Commander will lead his rehearsal flight at
high altitude along the lines so tbat they will be able
to pick out the front lines, witness combats and anti­aircfaft
attacks. He will give short lectures to members
of his flight upon the necessity of " nursing'' guns, engines,
and machines, keeping close formation, watching their
tails, upon conduct in combat, upon offensive and de­fensive
tactics, effective use of their guns, types of enemy
aircraft, and the many other valuable tips to be considered.
PREPARING FOR PATROL.
,Each Flight Commander will have a room or head­quarters
office for the convenience of the pilots and him­self
where flying equipment and maps can be kept
with safety.
The pilots detailed for a patrol will meet at the flight
office at least 20 minutes before each patrol for a clear
explanation of the .patrol 's mission, enemy activities,
each pilot's special duty, and points of rendezvous. The
map in.flight headquarters will show the latest lines and
information.
Pilots will be notified by the Flight Commander im­mediately
after finishing a patrol, whether or not they
are on the next patrol. The Fligh t Commander will
arrange to let 9ne pilot off each day, when possible, and
use a roster for this purpose.
It will be the duty of the Flight Commander to notify
the pilots as soon as a patrol is ordered.
In case it is impossible to leave the ground all tegether
in formation, a point for rendezvous will be announced
beforehand by the Flight Commander.
EN ROUTE FOR 'l'HE LINES.
Once the formation is formed, the patrol's altitude will
be attained. The Flight Commander will approach the
lines with the sun as nearly to his rear as possible and cross
the lines at the patrol 's ordered height.
The Flight Commander will study the position of each
pilot and machine in his formation so as to always know
the location of his weakest pilot and airplane.
While approaching the lines he will study the weather
conditions, paying particular attention to chifts, and make
an estimate of the possible enemy activities.
He will use all possible cover, such as clouds and sun,
in order to conceal his approach.
UPON CROSSING THE LINES.
The Flight Commander will credit the enemy with
having brains, and with having as great aerial experience
as himself.
I
He will constantly search the skies for enemy in a me­thodical
manner, dividing the sky into sectors for this
purpose. He will have a definite plan for this, such as
dividing the sky into quarters with the axis of his airph1,ne.
Each quarter will be searched in turn, carefully directly
ah ead , and then to the rear.
As soon as enemy is located he will not fail to point the
enemy out to his flight. All doubtful aircraft will be con­sidered
hostile. He will be responsible for his formation
by keeping it closed up and leading it under cover of
clouds and the sun. He will not remain continually over
the enemy lines for no apparent reason. He will never
get out of gliding distance of lines for no apparent reason.
He will continually change his course to avoid a smprise
antiaircraft attack, to make a search of the skies more easy.
He will avoid needless_ speed and sacrifice of h eight, and
at all times hold his patrol as high as possible, consistent
with the nature of the mission. He will make a note either
in writing or mentally of all enemy activities in the air
and on the ground, but this duty is subservient to that of
fighting, unless expressly ordered.
In case of an antiaircraft attack he will coolly lead hiH
flight in such a manner as to hold them together and
dodge the barrage by a change of direction and altitude.
On dodging antiaircraft which is on his lever he will climb,
and in exceptionally bad attacks he will dive. In case the
battery have not his altitude, he will continually change
his comse a few degrees, thereby avoiding a possible hit in
case.the correct altitude is hit upon by the enemy battery.
If his mission does not call him in that locality he will at
once get out of the battery's range, as an archie attack
points him out to the enemy aircraft and often precedes
an enemy aircraft attack.
LOCATING ENEMY AND PLANNING ATTACK.
Once the enemy is located he will sum up circumstances
quickly with a view of delivering a smprise attack if pos­sible.
It is to be re1rembered that the unit of time in the
air is better divided as the hundredths of a second and
~ not the second. In summing up circumstances the follow­ing
will always be considered:
(a) Present distance over lines.
(b) Type and number of enemy aircraft; their qualities
and armament.
(c) Possible enemy reserves.
(d) Should the attack "be launched at once; or will the
enemy present a better target later? ·
(e) Supply of fuel and ammunition on hand.
(f) Strength and direction of wind.
(g) Possibility of friendly reserves.
A Flight Commander will not under normal circum­stances
attack without ~dvantage over the enemy. It is
to be understood that the enemy does not always have the
advantage, even though he has the largest number of
aircraft.
In maneuvering for position he· will make use of all pos­sible
cover. Should cover not be available, he will leave
that area and get out of the enemy's sight, attempt to
attain a good p osition, and then return and deliver the
attack.
It is to be understood that every enemy aircraft can not
be attacked as soop. as it is seen1 and t hat to attack at once
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may only Tesult in dTiving the enemy home, while a few
minutes of maneuver may peTmit the forcing of a victorious
combat.
·coMBAT.
Once the Flight Commander has decided to attack he
will close up his formation and deliver an attack with de­termination,
always picking the enemy Flight Commander
for his opponent.
He will bear in Inind that bringing his flight into com­bat
all at once decreases the morale of the enemy because
of an entire flight's heavy firn. Once the fight has started
he will maneuver for position above the fight , his work
consisting more in paying attention to the main points
affecting the fight than in doing a large share of fighting
himself. These main points are:
(a) The arrival of enemy reserves which have tactical
advantage.
(b) The danger of his flight being carried with the wind
into enemy territory.
(c) How the fight is progressing as a whole and when
to withdraw if a retreat becomes n ecessary.
( d) Assistance of any friendly pilot in distress.
(e) To avoid any of the enemy climbing up over the
fight.
(j) To signal for friendly reserves if they be necessary.
(g) To assist his flight's retreat if a retreat becomes
necessary and to protect any airplane that has become
crippled.
When the combat is finished he · will recognize his
formation and continue his patrol.
AT THE END OF PATROL.
Upon finishing a high offensive patrol the Flight Com­mander
will lose -altitude and lead an attack upon any
low-flying enemy he has noticed during his patrol.
Should none be present, he will hold his fli ght together
and glide into the airdrome.
UPON LANDING.
He will report with his pilots to the operations officer
and give a correct and detailed report of his patrol. Every
particle of information will be given regll,rclless of how
little importance it may seem to him, for it may be of
grnat value to the intelligence department. If a fight
took place on the patrol he will talk over with the pilots
who .took part in the fight the progress of the same. He
will always explain each move he made in the patrol or
combat so as to make clear to his pilots anything they
may not have understood while in the air. This will
cause his flight to become more effective as a w1it and
understand him more easily in the air.
. The Flight Commander will not fail to give pilots
credit for all good work clone by them. Individual good
work will be credited the individual.
The Flight Commander will investigate with the pilot
any engine or machine-gun trouble that occurred on the
patrol. Unless the Flight Commander is interested in
the fligh t he can not expect the pilots to beco]Ile interested
in thei! airr lanes anci work.
ENTIRE SQUADRON ACTING AS A SINGLE PATROL.
The tlu-ee Flight Commanders and as many pilots as
possible will meet and talk over the coming squadron
patrol. .
The lowest flight will be the leading flight. The two
top fligh ts will govern themselves accordingly.
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The most experienced Flight Commander or the
Squadron Commander will lead the lower flight. This
officer will make known clearly h is intentions and desires
upon the coming patrol and make certain they are under­stood
.
LEADING THE LOWER FLIGHT.
The Flight Commander of the lower flight will have his
flight leave the ground last and will pick up his flight as
in the case of a single flight patrol. In that he is the patrol
l eader he will not govern his movement by the other two
flights above him. Instead the two upper flights will
govern their maneuver by him.
He will at all times be the farthest into the enemy's
territory. (See diagram 1.)
In leading the squadron patrols he will at all times con­sider
the two top flights; that is, avoid passing directly
underneath clouds which will cause the top flights to lose
him. At all times he must imagine himself in the circum­stances
surrounding the top flights and govern himself
accordingly .
In the event he decides to use his flight as a decoy he
will signal the top flights accordingly . vVhile acting as
a decoy he will watch the two top flights as much as he
does the enemy, always making sure the assistance upon
which he is dep ending is within reach and has not unex­pectedly
disappeared . Should the enemy attack a flight
acting as a decoy, the Flight Co=ander will lead his
fligp.t toward the lines and fight a defensive combat until
the middle flight comes to his assistance; then he will lead
his flight as in an offensive battle.
LEADING MIDDLE FLIGHT.
The Flight Co=ander of the middle flight will usually
fly about 3,000 feet above the lowest flight and govern his
maneuver accordingly.
He will at all times keep to the side and nearer friendly
territory than the lower flight. Thus he will never be as
deep into enemy territory as the lower flight. (See dia­grams
1 and 2.) Upon retreat across the lines he will not
permit his flight to lag behind the lower flight. He will
always ily to the left or right of the lower flight. He will
never be directly above the lower flight. (See Diagram 2.)
In case the lowest flight engages the enemy and no
assistance is necessary, the middle flight commander will
lead his flight as i=ediate protection and will engage all
approaching en emy reserves. In case the lowest flight is
broken up and disbanded, t he Flight Co=ander of the
middle flight will take command and lead the squadron
patrol.
LEADL'<G TOP FLIGH'l'.
The F light Co=ander of the top flight will lead his
patrol high apove the middle flight and will at all times
1-{lep concealed as much as possibl~. However, he will
k eep within view of the two lower flights. He will maneu­ver
his flight according to the movement of the two lower
flights, always keeping farther from the enemy lines than
the other two flights. (See diagram 2.)
In case of a retreat across the lines he will not allow his
flight to lag b ehind the two lower flights, as explained in
the case of the middle-flight. (See diagram 2.)
In the event he is attacked he will act as explained ID
the case of the middle flight being attack ed . (See Prin­ciples
of Echelon Formation and diagram 3.)
The F light Commander will hold his flight high until
both the lower flights have become engaged, at which time
he will go down in altitude if necessary and act as i=e­diate
protection. He will engage all enemy reinforce­ments
and will assist the lower flights in breaking off the
combat in case such becomes necessary.
He will not allow his flight to be attacked by the enemy
and will bear in mind that-bis mission is that of protection,
and once this protection is dispersed the lower flights will
be so weakened that the enemy will often be able to engage
and disperse them with the use of only a few airplanes.
PRINCIPLES OF ECHELON FORMATION.
It is to be noticed that in diagrams 1, 2, 3 that the top
and middle flights are never farther into enemy territory
nor are never directly above one another or the low flight.
This is the secret of many squadrons' success as a fighting
unit. The advantage of this type of formation is shown
in diagram 3 where t he middle flight bas been attacked
during a squadron retreat. The middle flight is in need
of protection; therefore, it has lost height, dropped down
to below the level of the lower flight.
The lower flight has become the middle flight and is in
position to render aid to the flight in distress. Should, in
turn, the lower flight, which has now become the middle
flight, need assistance, too, the top flight have now become
in position to render aid to it. Should the top flight need
assistance, the top Flight Co=ander will cause his flight
to lose height to below and to the side of the flight below
him. By continuing this mutual protection, at no time
will all flights become disorganized and the entire squad­ron
will be able to regain friendly territory intact. On the
other hand, had the top flight been lagging behind the
middle flight and directly behind it and the middle flight
had been .lagging behind the lower flight and directly
behind it the enemy would have bee.n able to have attacked
and dispersed the top flight because no aid could have
been rendered it. 1'he enemy would have been able to
continue the attack upon the mid,dle flight and would have
treated it in t he same manner as the top flight for the same
reason. Finally, the enemy would have attacked the
lower flight and dispersed it. The entire squadron would
have been broken up and at the mercy of the enemy.
RECEIVING A REPLACEMENT.
The Flight Commander will welcome any new pilot
assigned to' his flight and will take a brotherly interest in
him, making use of every means he can to gain the respect
and confidence of the new pilot. Every opportunity in
t he course of conversation will be used in instructin!l' thi~
',
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OIAGRAMNEI
cJ(P.UAORON f=ol?MA T/ON
OYE!f ENEM.Y LINES.
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UPON Sc;VAORON RETREAT
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10
new pilot how to conduct himself over the lines and to
follow the new and constantly changing situation and
tactics. Every effmt will be made to gain his friendship
and confidence. The mistake of treating a new pilot with
aloofness or disdain will not be made. After looking over
the new pilot's record and training, the Flight Commander
,vill give him such additional training as he sees fit as the
following:
(a) At least 15 hours' flying before beginning active
patrols.
(b) Stunting and maneuvering will be witnessed by the
Flight Commander.
(c) The new pilot will combat the Flight Commander
in at least three different combats above the airdrome.
(d) He will be given practice by taking off with active
patrols and following them up to the lines, at which time
the Flight Commander will signal him out of the formation.
(e) The Flight Commander will place every new pilot
upon two two-hour high patrols along a course well out of
the enemy aircraft range. The flight commander will
receive a report from each pilot after these patrols.
(f) Each new pilot will be instructed by his Flight Com­mander
how to use his machine guns to the best of advan­-
tage and will shoot at least 2,000 rounds on the squadron
range.
When a Flight Commander is satisfied that a new pilot
is ready for active service he will recommend him fm war
duty. A new pilot will not be placed on war duty UDatil
he is so recommended by the Flight Commander.
Upon the first few patrols a new pilot will fly next to and
to the left of the Flight Commander.
The Flight Commander will protect a new pilot while
flying over enemy territory.
A Flight Commander usually receives three kinds of
undesirable replacements. He will not hesitate in rec­ommending
their return to an air depot. They are as
follows:
First. The wild pilot who feels he can not be told any­thing
and has the impression that within a few days 11e
will have many enemy aircraft to his credit. Such a type
of pilot will only be shot down and may cause other mem­bers
of the flight to be lost in an- attempt to rescue him.
Such a pilot is a detriment to a well-organized flight.
Second. The slow-going, useless pilot, who is unable to
take care of himself in a combat. One who, if not shot
clown shortly, will seldom account for any enemy aircraft
and often hold back the efficiency of the flight by needing
assistance and protection from other members of the flight.
Such a pilot is only dead-weight to an efficient fighting unit.
Third. The pilot who dreads t he air and avoids combat.
Such a type of pilot can not be counted upon for assistance
in an engagement with the enemy, and is therefore useless
and should be sent away immediately for reclassification.
A Flight Commander will understand that a new pilot
is of little value to a flight until after he has had some
weeks of active experience. A new pilot will not be con­sidered
an asset to his patrol, but, on the contrary, will
need a certain amount of protection in that he is not able
to protect himself the first few weeks.
A Flight Commander will take the responsibility of
assisting a new pilot in the first two montlis of his war
work for at the end of th1s time the new pilot should be an
asset to the flight, for by that time it will not be likely
that he will be shot clown, with the consequent necessity
of training replacement. A flight which is continuously
training new pilots is not an effective fighting unit.
II. THE PURSUIT PILOT'S MANtJAL.
FOREWORD-PREPARATIONS AND Krr FOR ACTIVE SERVICE-REPORTING TO THE ZONE OF ADVANCE-REPORTING TO
THE ACTIVE D UTY SQUADRON-REPORTING TO THE FLIGHT COMMANDER-THE OPERATIONS ROOM-ASSIGNMENT
OF AIRPLANE-THE FmsT FLIGHT AT THE SERVICE SQUADRON-PRELIMINARY TRAINING AT THE FRONT-PREPARA­TION
FOR A PATROir--THE FrRST PATROir--LEARNING THE SECTOR-How TO IDE , TIFY TH E ENEMY-GAINING THE
RESPECT OF THE FLIGHT COMMANDER-CONDUCT IN OFFENSIVE COMBAT- CONDUC'l' IN D EFENSIVE COMBAT­I
N CASE OF BEING SEPARATED FROM THE PATROir--HANDLING THE MACHINE AFTER COMBAT-IN CASE OF A
FORCED LAND[NG-!N CASE OF BEING WOUNDED-IN CASE OF B EING TAKEN PRISONER.
Special Missions.
BALLOONS- F IRING ON GROUND TARGETS-Low RECONNAISANCES-ATTACKS ON E NEMY AIRDOMES.
FOREWORD.
This manual is not given with the intention of pro­viding
a set of hard and fast rules for pursuit tactics and
practices. It is intended to cover only the few practices
and tactical principles which seem to have be.come firmly
fixed and universally used by successful pursuit pilots.
The many factors of altitude, visibility, position,
strength , type of airplane, wind, time, sun, and tactical
situation which enter into the problem of conduct of each
attack, or defense, are capable of so many varying com­binations
that in the opinion of most successful pursuit
pilots any attempt to reduce them to hard and ·fast rules
will lead to wrong more often than to right results. In
their opinion only experience over the lines perfect team­work,
and the reduction of as many as pos;ible of the
routine duties to instinctive or reflex action will result
in success.
Teamwork is a matter of personality and hard work.
Most of the routine duties can not be stimulated in train­ing
and must, therefore, be learned while on active duty.
This chapter is intended as a guide to the individual
pilot in the first few weeks, until he can have mastered
enough of the routine duties to build up a fund of experi­ence
which will enable him to take care of himself at lea.st
with the minimum of attention from the remainder of
the patrol.
Do not, therefore, take this manual to cover anything
but the commonest situations which will confront you or
those which have more or less of a standard solution, and
which, therefore, other pilots will expect you to follow.
You must master them, together with the other prear­ranged
rules of the flight, thus building up your own fund of
experience from which you will be able to draw your own
conclusions and coordinate them with the other members
into the highly complex system of successful flight fighting.
Your first trip over the lines is, in many ways, similar
to the first solo. No matter what training and experience
you may have had, you will literally encounter thousands
of unexpected things which take your attention away from
the object of the patrol. The result is that your offensive
value is nil and your liability to do the wrong thing makes
you a menace not only to yourself but to the whole flight
as well. These routine things, therefore, which at first
take all your attention, are the things that you must
master in the shortest possible time.
Your training should have taught you the art of flying
untiJ it is intuitive. You should be able to do what you
wish with your airplane and at the same time d evote your
entire attention to other things. Actual flying is a very
small part of aerial fighting. You will be expected to
fly gracefully, acrobatically, and by the sense of feel.
You will be expected to be a quick, clear-thinking, level­headed
type of man, full of offensive spirit and yet at the
same time well disciplined and willing to follow your
leader to the end, and play teamwork.
Remember that the days of individual fighting have
almost passed and that su ccess is only attained in success­ful
formation fighting. That flight will be most suc­cessful
which will follow its leader best and d evelop its
team tactics to the maximum. Every thought, therefore,
of personal glory must be made secondary to the demands
of the flight as a flight. Follow your leader.
PREPARAT~ONS AND FIT FOR ACTIVE SERVICE.
Before coming to a service squadron all financial and per­sonal
matters should be settled so that th ere will be noth­ing
of this nature to bother you. Notify your bankers of
your emergency address. Frequently their receipt o[
your check cashed in an enemy country is the quickest
way of getting back news that you are a prisoner.
Take enough kit with you to insure your personal com­fort.
You will be able to live at the squadron with many
of the comforts that are denied to men in the line and you
will be expected to work all the harder for it. But do
not get yom· kit too heavy and bulk-y. There are always
transportation difficulties in case of an emergency change
of station.
REPORTING TO THE ZONE OF ADVANCE.
Pilots are distributed over the zone of advance to the
different active squadrons tluough the air depots. When
you report at an air depot you will be placed in a pool to
await a vacancy in some squadron. Sometimes it will be
possible to be sent to a squadron where you have friends,
br where the commanding officer has asked for you . This
is desirable but not always possible in times of stress.
REPORTING TO 'l'HE ACTIVE SERVICE SQUADRON.
When you arrive at the squadron to which you have been
assigned report at once to the adjutant and commanding
(11)
/
12
officer. Have your record book, pilot's log book, and train­ing
cards with you. Ilave clearly in mind a brief outline
of your training and experience in case he should ask for it.
From here you will be assigned to a fligh t. •
REPORTING TO THE F LIGHT C01'1MANDER.
As soon as you are assigned to a flight report to the Flight
Commander. Above everything else be frank. You are
a beginner and have everything to learn. Your position in
the flight will be that of an apprentice. No matter what
your experience, you will be detrimental to the flight until
you have learned to take care of yourself a nd to work
loyally with that flight in the air. This experience can be
gotten only with the fl ight over the lines. You must win
the confidence of t he Fligh t Commander and every man in
the flight. They must know what·you will do and that
you may be depended on before you will really be a mem­ber
of the flight a~ far as results are concerned.
Remember what the Fligh t Commander tells you. Do
not be afraid to ask him questions. He is as anxious to
have you develop into a good war pilot as you are. Always
remember that it is his fl igh t and you are a junior officer
t rying to learn to,work with the fl ight.
THE OPERATIONS ROOilf.
The Flight Commander will show you the operat ions '
room. Here you wi]J find maps and all the information
about the sector, operations, and intelligence. Read the
combat reports and study them. The operations officer
wi ll issue to you whatever maps you will need personally .
Get acquainted with the operations officer. He can give
you many good tips on learning the sector and the kind of
work that is going on. Many things you will want to know
he can tell you, and thus save your bothering your Flight
Commander with petty details. '
l\fake a close study of all the maps and charts in the oper­ations
office, lr arning everything th'at you can about th)c!
sector, the lines, enemy machines,land method of fighting.
The slightest bit of information may suddenly become of
greatest value to you. Learn the front lines so well that
you can draw them off on any map.
Pick out all the prnminent points where the lines crnss
rivers, roads, and other prnminent landmarks as far back
into enemy territory as you can. Learn the sector that
you will have to work over in case of rapid advances, for
during times of rapid movement of the lines you wi ll have
little time to devote to study .
ASSIGNMENT OF AIRPLANE.
If there is an airplane available for you the Flight Com­mander
will assign it to you personally . Except in case of
emergencies, this airplane will be flown by no one but
yourself. Do not be surprised if it is the oldest airplane in
the flight ; you are the junior officer and the airplane is all
right or would notlbe there. Each airplane will have its
own crew. You must trust your life to their work, so make
their acquaintance and win their friendship and respect.
Take the same interest in them that you expect from them.
Make an inspection of the airplane and order whateYer
small personal changes in the seat a.nd instruments as are
necessary to make yourself most comfortable when flying.
You should have a place for the maps and have two maps
always in the coc1."J)it---0ne for forced landings, covering a
wide area; another for use in the air, showing the sector
and the lines. Be sure that there is nothing on the map or
cards that you carry which would give information to the
enemy. Have a pad and pencil convenient. Old pilots
usually carry shoes, a hat, and a few toilet articles for use
in case of forced landings or should they be taken prisoner.
Take the greatest care of your airplane and the engine,
not only in the air but on the ground . Take an interest
in inspecting it and investigating trouble with the crew.
They can give you many little tips about handling it and
keeping it going nicely. 'fry to find out with them what
has caused any trouble, what was done to remedy it, and
il there is anything you can do to prevent its recurrence.
The airplane will stand up for you, much as you treat it
in the air. Do not do a lot of unnecessary acrobacy,
straining the airplane just for fun . You will be very saving
with your engine. Do not run it wide open for a long time
on the ground. Do not jam the throttle open suddenly.
Never work the engine at its maximum power unless it is
absolutely n ecessai:y . Favor both the engine and airplane
at every opportunity, so you can ask the maximum when
you n eed. it over the lines.
THE FIRST FLIGHT AT THE SERVICE SQUADRON.
Your first flight at the squadron will, in all probability,
be watched closely by the Flight Commander, who is far
more interested in you than you· may think. Many new
pilots do not understand what will impress a Flight Com­mander.
Old pilots never take chances unless the reward
is worth it. Therefore, do not put up an exhibition of
wild, low flying , thinking to give the impression that you
have a lot of nerve. What your Flight Co=ander will
want to see is t hat you are a good, capable pilot, steady
and able to make your airplane go where you want it to go
and do · what you plan to do. Exhibition flying has no
place on the front.
PRELIMINARY TRAINING AT THE FRONT.
As a rule, you will get about 15 hours behind the linee
before you go on active patrols. Your Flight Co=ander
will tell you what to do~ombating with experienced
pilots, formation flying, target practice, acrobacy, and
some practice patrols well within friendly territory.
You must make every effort to learn as much as you can
in the shortest possible time. Learn all you can about the
country. Get all the tips and criticism yon can from the
older pilots.
PREPARATION FOR A PATR OL.
It is absolutely essential that you do everything possible
on the ground to make things convenient for you while in
the air. 'l'herefore, be careful that your pockets are clear
of letters and papers that might give information to the
enemy. 'l'he slightest thing may be of great value to them.
A small, easily concealed compass and map of the enemy
territory should always be carried in the hope of aiding
escape. Always carry a check book and some money.
Always have your identification tag and your identity card
with you. Exercise care that your clothing, goggles, etc.,
\..
13
fit and that you are comfortable b efore you begin a patrol.
See that everything you will need is in the machine and
in the easiest place to get at it. See that they are always
kept there in readiness. Have your clothing arranged in
the flight office or near the machine where you can get
into it in a hurry. Time spent in keeping things ready
and in theii: place will save you many an anxious moment
in the ail: and perhaps your life.
·when a patrol is due, be in the flight office with every­thing
in readiness at least 20 minutes before you are due
to leave the ground. The Flight Commander will tell you
about the patrol and what is to be done. Listen carefully
to his instructions and remember them to the letter.
Be in your machine wi th the engine running and every­thing
all ready to take off as soon as the Fligh t Commander
is in his own airp1ane. Nothing is more annoying than to
have to h old a patrol for a slow pilot. Patrols miist be
absolutely prompt in leaving on time. If the flight is to
take off in formation , taxi out to your position as quickly
as possible behind the man who flies ahead of you. Have
everything ready so you will not be trying to fix the bolt
or arrange your dress while taking off. If you spoil a
take-off or are slow in picking up the formatio n, you are
simply a poor pilot.
THE FIRST PATROL.
Your first patrol will be one of the hardest ' you wili
probably ever have to do. All the things that are second
nature to the experienced men are now to you and seem
to take all your time. The learning of these things as
quickly as possible is therefore most important.
l. Trust your Flight Commander and follow him
wherever he goes.
2. Keep your station. Do not lag_ and wander about
over the formation. You have learned all this in your
training, but it is common fault with most experienced
men. If you lag behind a formation you are "Cold Mea1"
in case the patrol is attacked. You are not only endanger­ing
your own life but the lives of your comrades as well.
You are asking that in case you are attacked they break
the formation and endanger th eir lives by coming back to
save you. On your first patrol you will probably not have
the slightest idea of the enemy's presence about till you
hear them sh ooting at you ; therefore, i t is doubly impor­tant
that you keep formation. When you have become
experienced you will worry more about the man wh~ lags
than about the enemy.
3. Never leave the formation unless both guns are hope­lesslyi
jammed or your engine is failing. In this case
signal·the F light Commander and he will escort you back
to safety if you are in dangerous territory. If your engine
is so bad that you can not keep up with the formation while
they take you back, do not lag behind, but keep directly
under them. Yon will be far safer 3,000 feet below the
formation than 1,000 feet behind it. If there are no enemy
present and you feel safe to go back alone, do not leave
the formation without letting the Flight Commander
know. He will probably not be watching you, having
many other things to look for. Therefore, dive down
below and in front of him till you are sure he se,;is you and
give the prearranged signal for leaving the patrol.
4. Keep track at all times as nearly a you can of just
where you are and the shortest way home. Always keep
something in sight that shows you the way back-the
direction of the sun or some prominent landmark. If
the sun is out, always have in mind the direction of the
shadows of the struts on the wings wh en the airplane is
headed home. It may save your life if you are attacked,
lost, and have to keep dodging till your compass is use­less.
Watch how far over the lines you are at all times.
These things must become second natme to you.
5. If you are attacked by antiaircraft fu-e, stick tight
to your formation. Yom chances of being hit are very
small. The primary reason for antiaircraft fire is to
distract your attention and break up your formation so
that you will be easy to attack. Stick tight to your
leader and t rust to him to bring you through.
6. If the Flight Commander signals the presence of
enemy, try to locate them. It will be difficult, if not
impossible, the fast few times. if you do see them,
study them intently so you . will be able to recognize
the type of machine instantly.
7. If the Hight is attacked or makes an attack, you will
have all you can do to stay with the flight. Con centrate
yom whole attention on this. Pick out the leader or some
experienced man and follow · him wherever he goes.
This is all that will be expected of you. Your offensive
value for the first few patrols will be almost nil. What
will be · expected is that you stay close to the formation
so that they can take care of you. If you go chasing the
enemy away you will be lost before you kno,w i t and no
help can be given to you. If you are lost from the patrol,
keep your eyes open and fly away from enemy territory
till you find some familiar landmark or until you aie
certain you are over friendly territory.
8. When the patrols start back home stay with them
t ill they get home or the Flight Commander signals to
break up. Then await your turn to land. When it
comes to making out your report; wait till the older
pilots have made theirs. You will probably think that
you have seen mo.re than any of them, but you will find
out in a few weeks that in reality you have seen almost
nothing. Don't think that you are the only one who
was shot at by ant iaircraft.
DISCOURAGEMENTS.
You may come back from your first patrols or your
first fight full of the greatest confid ence. You may
imagine that it is going to be easy and that you will be
able to make a wonderful record in a few weeks. This
is a very bad sign. You have not b egun to realize the
real possibilities and dangers of pursuit work. Do not
become overconfident; it is sure to result, sooner or later,
in yo w- getting yo urself and p erhaps the whole flight as
well into a bad position. Successful pursuit is a complex
subj ect, requiring the maximum of common sense gov­erned
by a thoroughly offensive spirit.
Again, and more likely, if you are the proper sort,
you will be deeply discouraged . P erhaps you could not
see the enemy at all. You may not have known that
you were over the lines or may not have had the slightest
idea of the course the patrol followed. The flight may
have attacked the enemy or may even have been attacked
14
itself without your- realizing it. Someone may even
have shot down an enemy aircraft and you did not see
it . Do not let these things discourage you ; they" are the
experience of practically every man in his fast few
patrols.
LEARNING THE SECTOR.
Study constantly the maps and the sector over which
you are to work. You can never know the country, the
landmarks, and the lines too well. The more thoroughly
you learn any front line the easier it will be to pick up a
new one if you move into new country. During yotir
first weeks make as many practice flights as possible
behind your lines, studying the country, learning the
woods, rivers, and landmarks till you have a constant
mental picture of the sector.
HOW TO IDE NTIFY THE ENEMY.
In the magazines enemy insignia is the only means of
identification. If you wait till you can see the insigni:i,
in actual warfare you will be hours too late. You must
learn to pick them up from the silhouettes as far as you
can see them. Study the printed pictures and silhouettes
of enemy airplanes till each one is firmly fixed in your
mind. Note the style of the nose, tail planes, rudder,
and wing tip. Most often you will get the side view of
the enemy first. At first you will be surprised that the
Flight Co= ander is able to identify enemy at such
great distances. Soon you will understand that many
times they ~ay be identified by the type or method of
the formation and the maneuvers they make or by their
position in the air. For instance, a formation well beyond
you in enemy territory which is not receiving any anti­aircraft
fire is almost cer tain to be hostile. In any case
where you are in the sligh test doubt as to an airplane or
formation's identity regard it as hostile.
GAINING THE RESP EC'.r OF THE FLIGHT COMMANDER .
There is nothing that will repay you more than having
, the respect and confidence of your Flight Co=ander .
Every effort should be made to this end . The following
are some things that will h elp to show that you are in
earnest. Take an interest in your airplane. You, as well
as the crew, are responsible that it works well. Remember
that " yellow" pilots seem to have more engine t rouble
th~n anyone else. They seem to get lost most often.
Keep with your formation . Don't leave the formation
to go chasing after something that looks like an easy
mark. The Flight Co=ander probably saw it long
before you did . He may know that it is a decoy or may be
planning some other method of attack . It is his job to
say when to start a fight or break off. Don't h ang back or
lay out when the Flight Commander begins an attack.
If you are forced out of a fight, climb up and reen ter it as
soon as you can. If you have to leave a patrol on account
of engine trouble get another airplane and come back to
the patrol if there is still time. If you lose the formation
while on patrol and are unable to find them again, do a
line patrol till the time is up. Don't be afraid to volun­teer
f.or special missions.
CONDUCT IN OFFENSIVE COMBAT.
The days of individual fighting have almost passed .
The flight is the fighting unit and success depends on its
ability to hold t ogether and fight as a unit . When the
formation attacks do your best to hold your position in
the. dive. This will be difficult at fast but will come
with practice. Hold your fire until as short a range as
. possible. Firing from long ranges serves only to give the
enemy warning and allow him to dodge before you can
reach a real effective range. Your big advantage in the
attack is your h eigh t. Therefore, try to hold as much of
it as is possible after the first dive.
Do not follow a stray enemy too far below the figh t, no
matter how promising the results seem, as long as othN
enemy are left above. Always stay as close as you can
to the general fight and the flight as a wholE:. Keep an
eye on your comrades all the tim{l. It is as i;nuch your
duty to protect them from being shot down as to shoot
down the enemy. Saving a member of your own flight
i.s of much more real value than neglecting him when he
is in a tight place in order to gain personal glory by keeping
on after an enemy and shooting him clown .
If a retreat is necessary join it at once; do not lag behind .
If you can not keep up wi th the formation keep below il
and not behind . ·when a fight is over, pick up your com­rades
and take your old position in the formation as soon
as possible. ·
CONDUCT IN DEFENSJVE COMBAT.
A defensive combat is generally the result of a surprise
attack delivered by unobserved enemy or enemy re­serves.
It is most necessary that the fo1·mation hold
together as tightly as possible; there is no batter defense.
A breaking up ofthe flight will always result in the enemies
concen t ration on some one man .
If. you are attacked individually , dive close below the
men ahead of you ; then return as soon as possible to your
old' position . If some other member of the formation is
attacked, start to help him and return as soon as possible
to your old position . If the formation can be held to­gether
till the first dive of the en<"my is finished the :worst
of the fight is over.
IN CASE OF BEI 'IG SEPARATED F'ROM 'J'HE PATROL.
In case of being separated from your patrol in combat,
wi thno_chance to regain it wi thout too serious in terference~
at on ce work your way back to the lines, very low clown
if necessary. If attacked , use clouds for cover, if avail­able;
otherwise use a zigzag course. Never fly or dive
straight away fTom an attacker . Occasionally turn back
in a sharp climbing turn as if to attack your pursuers.
Never deliberately put your machine o-ut of cont rol by
losing flying speed or going into a spin . At the point of
stalling you are almost a stationary t arget. When in a
spin you are a fair target and when corning out you are an
excellent target. When close to the lines a tight spiral
right down to the ground may lose the enemy and corning
home at the lowest possible altitude will protect you from
antiaircraft fae. Upon being attacked by antiaircraft
fire when n;lone keep calm. Change your course only a
15
few degrees by the use of flat turns. Do not maneuver in
a systematic way. Should antiaircraft burst on your lever,
ch<1nge altitude by d iving, climbing, or sideslipping.
HANDLING THE MACRlNE APTER COMBAT.
After a combat handle your airplane with care. Some
vital part may have been shot through and weakened.
IN CASE OF FORCED LANDING.
When ordered to land near the lines within view o[ the
enemy, take what instruments, etc., yon can from the
airplane and abandon it. As a rule, the enemy will open
fire on it immediately with machine gun or arti llery. If
landing at some distance back of the lines have a guard
placed on the airplane immediately. Examine it and
make a list" o[ the p:i,rts necessary to get it into the air
again. Get into communication with your sq uadron at
once. Shte the results of the patrol up to the time you
left i t . Give the list of what is needed. Give your exact
location and tell where you can be reached at all times.
Tell the guard where he can find you at any time.
IN CASE OF BEING WOUNDED.
Do not attempt to return to your aerodrome if your
wound seems to be serious. Land by the nearest .hospital.
As soon as you are able, mal,;:e every effort to notify the
squadron of the details of the fight, the patrol, your con­dition
, etc. This information may be a long time reaching
the squadron through the regular channels.
IN CASE OF BEING TAKEN PRISONER.
Immediately you learn that you are in hostile territory
set fae to your airplane and destroy everything about you
that would be of the leaBt value to the enemy . Should
you be unnoticed , conceal yourself till nightfall. All you
will need to tell when you are taken is your name and rank.
Do not let them find out what squadron you are from ,
where you have been working, anything about the kind
of airplane ·you have been using, or the work you have
been doing. Keep yom mouth absolutely closed . They
will respect you all the more highly for being a good soldier
and a true patriot. The slightest hint may become of the
greatest value to them and cause danger or death for your
comrades.
Special Missions.
BALLOONS.
When you are detailed to the destruction of enemy
balloons, see that your airplan:e is fitted with a balloon
gun, if one is to be had , and that you are suppl:i..ed with the
proper incendiary ammunition. Balloon attacks are usually
of two general classes- those made in large numbers, with
no attempt at achieving surprise, and those made single­handed
or with one or two machines, where surprise of the
target will be the chief factor.
In the first class those made with the aid of a large
number of airplanes, if you are detailed to attack the
balloon your Flight Oo=ander will give you explicit in­structions
as to just what to do and you must follow the
program to the letter. Machines will be detailed to drop
pombs oμ t4e wj.n9h a!ld 9n the ~rouμd defenses of the
balloon in order to neutralize the fire from the ground and
keep the personnel from hauling the balloon down . Other
airplanes will stay above to guard you against enemy air­craft.
Therefore, you must devote your whole attention
to the ground and trust the others to take care of you.
As soon as .the bombs have been dropped , if there are
no arranged signals from the Flight Oo=ander as to when
to begin your attack, attack immediately in turn with
the others who may be detailed to the same work. If there
are several of you diving on the balloon, be careful to
arrange your dives so that yon do not interfere with each
other.
In the second class of attacks surprise is the main ele­ment
of success. You. should know exactly where the
balloon is so that you will waste no time or give no warn­ing
in searching about for it. If there are no clouds, go
to the balloon at a good height so as to give the impression
that you are not going to attack. ,Vhen you reach a good
position have a quick look for possible enemy and if all
is clear do a quick half roll and approach the balloon as
rapidly as you can in a steep dive. If there are clouds
available, use them for cover to screen your approach,
either by flying through or dodging about them, till you
are in a position to attack. Remember that surprise of the
target is your best defense against antiaircraft fire.
Begin your attack by a fast dive of about 45, that brings
you right on the balloon from its rear or so that you will
be diving into the wind. Hold the steadiest aim possible
when yo"u. get the balloon in the sights; endeavor to con­centrate
youi· fire in one spot in the top quarter of the
balloon.
Two things are necessary to make ·the balloon burn­:
first, puncture it so that the gas escapes, and thus with
the air forms a burning mixture; second , ignite the mix­ture
with your incendiary bullets. Do not open :firn from
more than 100 yards and continue steady fire to at least 25
yards. If you have two guns, one using service a=u­nition
and the other the incendiary, hold the incendiary
till the last of the dive.
As soon as you have finished firing, turn away in a hard
climbing turri. Avoid, if possible, passing directly over
the top of the balloon as you will often find the heaviest
concentration of machine-gun fire there. Never fly
straight for a minute after you have finished the dive.
If the balloon does not ignite, have another look for enemy
aircraft and make a second attack in the same manner just
as soon as you are able. Remember on subsequent dives
that they will be lowering the balloon as rapidly as pos­eible.
As soon as the balloon is afire or you have decided
to abandon the attack, loose h eight and come home as
close to the ground as possible. This is about the best
defense you will have against the intense antiaircraft :fire.
Never continue to attack a balloon where you do not
meet with heavy antiaircraft and machine-gun :fire from
the ground or which they do not begin to haul down
almost immediately . It is probably a decoy, a dummy,
or one loaded with dynamite.
FIRING ON GROUND TARGETS.
Attacks on ground targets will nearly always be made
in one of three ways: (a) Fli~ht qr squadro11 attacks on a,
16
single objective; (b) attacks in pairs or threes; (c) attacks
singly. If going with a flight or one man, it will be best
to follow in file .and dive on the target one after the other.
The actual attack of the target is the same in both cases.
In going alone cir in pairs it is best to go to the target at
about 4,000 feet. This puts you just out of effective ma­chine-
gun fire from the ground. Surprise of the target is
the best defense against the machine-gun fire- from the
vicinity.
Attack the target from the sun if possible. This makes
if more difficult for them to see you from the ground.
Make the attack quickly and with determination. Do
not open fire from too great a heigh t; it is merely wasting
your a=unition. The lower you can carry the dive the
better shooting you will be able to do. Drbp bombs at
the end of the dive when low enough to make sure of their
aim. The bombs are your greatest destructive power.
At the end of your dive you will be in the range of
machine-gun fire from the ground, so make your course as
erratic as possible as you climb away from the target.
Always keep a sharp lookout for enemy aircraft both be­fore
a dive and after. As soon as you have dropped all
your bombs and fired all but a hundred rounds or so of
ammunition take a zigzag course back to the lines.
Take great care that you get the right target. It is very
easy to get the wrong one or even to make a mistake and
fire on your own troops.
You should attack the following targets whenever you
see them: Artillery or convoys of transport on the roads ;
bodies of men; railroad and narrow-gauge trains (use
bombs trying to hit the engine); clumps and supply cen­ters
where there seems to be extraordinary activity ; staff
cars; stables or bodies of horses in the open. Always
' watch on a crossroad for a chance to congest transport by
means of your bombs.
LOW RECONNOISSANCES.
During the times of strenuous attack and when the line
is moving rapidly, you may be_ called upon to do short
reconnoissances. They will generally be to obtain in the
shortest possible time information about some one definite
place, who holds it, if reinforcements are being concen­trated
there, which direction or how much movement there
is on a road, etc. The most important point, therefore,
is speed . Go directly to the place, come down low enough
to make absolutely sure of what you are trying to find , and
get back as quickly as you can} get out of your airplane,
and make your report at once: If there is a car awaiting
to take you to headquarters, do not stop to take off your
clothes or bother about your airplane. Speed is the prime
requisite. Make your report brief and pointed. Do not
say anything that you are not absolutely certain about.
Sometimes you may be called upon to do a more or less ·
regular reconnoissance. In this case you should have
studied carefully the ordinary procedure of a reconnois­sance
machine and will govern yourself accordingly.
ATTACKS ON ENEMY AIRDROMES.
In attacks on enemy airdromes you will go to the target
in formation. Be sure that you understand to the letter
the plan of the attack, just what everyone is to do, and
when your own turn will come and your particular job.
Some definite order will generally be laid out in which
different men or formations will dive on the target. Watch
closely and when your own turn comes act promptly. If
you are to dive in formation , follow with the man who is
leading the formation . Be careful when you are getting
toward the encl of the dive that you do not place your firn
where some one in the formation ahead of you may have
to turn into it as he comes away from the target.
If you dive alone, pick out the target you have been
assigned to and put your ammunition and bombs on 'it as
quickly as you can. Make short, fast dives, coming away
in a hard climbing turn &o as to bring you into position
for the next dive. Keep a keen watch for machines about
to leave the ground, and if you find one attack him. If
enemy machines are setting upon the line on the enemy
airclrome attack them.
II you are allowed by the orders to work more or less at
liberty on whatever targets you can find, keep a watch for
machine guns and antiaircraft batteries outside the air­drome.
Watch £or concentrations of personnel at en­trance
of dugouts or shelter or anything which seems to be
a good target and was not thought of in planning the
attack.
Do not use all yow· ammunition. Save 100 rounds or
so for the trip back. As soon as you have finished , start
home, joining the closest friendly ai.rplanee, keeping a
keen lookout for enemy and picking up any other members
of your party so that you can make up a formation as you
return.
The most important point on this sort of work is that you
understand clearly the plan of the attack, just exactly
what you are to do, and then stick to it.
Secrecy is absolutely essential in planning this sort of
attack, so do not expect much warning when one is ordered,
for the better the surprise the greater your success and the
less antiaircraft defenses you will encounter.
ID. THE NIGHT PURSUIT PILOT'S MANUAL.
Q UALIFICATIONS OF TE:E NIGHT P URSUIT PILOT- I N GENERAL--FmsT D u 'l'IES AT THE SQUADRON-GENERAL Rurr
FIELD R ULES- COMM NICATJON WITH THE GROUND- ON P ATROLS- C OMBAT.
QUALIFICATIONS OF THE NIGHT PURSUIT PILOT.
A pilot assigned to night pursuit will be, above every­thing
else, one who hai, absolutely mai,tered the science
of flying. The man who will succeed must be one who is
able to fly any type of airplane by intuition and sense of
feel. In night flying many of the purely mechanical
aids to flying, such as clear sight of the ground or horizon,
and their position relative to the airplane at any given
moment, are lacking, and int uition or "feel " must take
their places.
In addition to flying ability, the night pilot must be a
man of exceptional memory for country and ability to
find his way about with the minimum of direction. He
must be a man keen about his work, one who will seize
every opportunity to get into the air. H e must be a man
of great patience and determination, for most night patrols
will involve long, patient searching at some definite place.
In addition, of course, he must have all the qualifica­tions
necessary to the successful day pursuit pilot.
IN GENERAL.
Night pursuit, more than anything else, calls for indi­vidual
and personal initiative. Formation flying is not
possible, and you will have to work alone. Therefore,
you must develop your own individual tactics, always
governed by the best experiences of oth ers and your own
experience and study.
The Pursuit Pilots Manual will govern most of your
duties and sh ould be followed wherever applicable.
FIRST DUTIES AT THE SQUADRON.
Of equal importance with your ability to fly is your
knowledge of the sector. You must absolutely commit to
memory the sector over which you will work. Make the
most careful study of every map available. In the
operations office you will find maps of the sector, showing
the position of searchligh ts, lighthouses, antiaircraft bat­teries,
etc. This map will also show the nonmilitary
ligh ts which may be used for landmarks at night. As
all of these landmarks will be found in the rear of the line,
they may be studied from the air by day with little fear
from interruption. Fly over the sector in the daytime,
picturing to yourself what it will look like at nigh t, where
the searchligh ts and lighthouse3 will be seen. Memorize
from the position of the ligh thouse the locations of landing
fi elds, forests, airdromes, rivers, and the parts of the sectm
in which it would be impossible to land.
If it is possible during the day, make short excursions
into enemy territory with our own patrols, studying the
ch_siracteristics of the country in the same way you have
~tudied those behind your owp lipes. ou will find a
map of the enemy lights. Study thi:"s carefully. Remem­ber
that they change frequently.
An especially careful study of the landmarks around
your own airclrome should be made. Learn to locate it
instantly through its relation to the various lights.
During th ese practice flights familiarize yourself -,·ith.
the use of the instruments in the dark. This must be­come
a matter of second nature, so as not to distract your
attention from mor!'l important things.
GENERAL RULES
Never attempt to fly under 1,000 feet at night. There
is no use taking needless risks. On your first night flight
try to arrive over the airdrome with an altitude of at least
3,000 feet ; take your time about corning clown, and re­member
the difficulties and clangers of the obstacles you
have located in your dayligh t practice.
After you have become more or less experienced and
know your sector, do not fly too much in the daytime.
Otherwise you are likely to go stale and feel that you are
never off duty. Everything depends on your keeping
anxious for the tiresome business of patrol.
FIET,D R LES.
No standard field illumination has as yet been arrived
at, but the following has proven to be simple and very
effective. The field will be illuminated by four or more
lamps or projectors placed to shine 30 up wind. (See
cl i:tgram 4. )
Landing ground will be marked by two white and red
lights. Airplanes will take off and land between the white
lights and toward red light. (See diagram 4. )
F lood ligh ts
White light o
White li gh t O
---di rec ti on of wind
O red light
D!AG::lAM 4.
While airplanes are up, a pilot or beacon light will be
operated from the lighting truck, flashing a distinctive
signal at intervals of not more than 10 seconds apart.
There will be an officer in charge of flying, whose duty
will be to see that fl ood lights and ground lights are placed
correctly with reference to the wind, to operate blinker
for cornmu nication with ai~·plan('s in th!) air, to rigid ly
enforce these field rules.
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18
In case o[ a wreck on the field, the wreckage will be ON PATROLS.
marked by red ligh ts, one to be placed on the highest part While you are on patrol you will be able to locate the
of the wreck. enemy by concentration of antiaircraft fire, observation
Pilot about to take off will not taxi into the field until of explosion of bombs on ground, and by the direction
he has flash ed his airplane number to the officer in charge and concent ration of the searchligh ts when they pick up
of flying at the ligh ting truck and has received the same an enemy. Rarely you may be able to locate an enemy
signal in return. Then projectOTs 11-ill be turned on just by the tracer from his gun, t he fl,i,me of hisiexhaust, or
long enough for airplane to take-off. the ligh ts in his machine. On a clear nigh t you may pick
Pilot of returning airplane will maintain an altitude of up an enemy silhoueeted against the sky above you.
1 500 feet until he has flashed his number to the ground Eneiny nigh t bombers are almost certain to follow perma­a~
d has received the same signal in return. Pilots will nent landmarks, and wh en assigned to a night patrol you
not land before receiving this signal, even though airdrome must Etay over this spot patiently and await your oppor­may
be ligh ted , as another airplane is landing or taking off. tunity. Do not allow yourself to be distracted by neigh-
In case of enemy aircra[t overhead , flood lights will not boring lights or enemy aircraft so far away from your
be lighted , but a red light will be placed beneath each station as to prevent you from covering your patrol every
flood light. Airplanes in the air will not land, but at once minute.
fly about until receiving their proper signals. While on patrol, frequently throttle down and glide as
Wind direction will be indicated by the two white !1nd quietly as pos3ible in order th9at the light operators and
one red light which mark the landing field. These lights gunners on the ground may listen for enemy machines.
take the place of the " tee " in day flying. Be sul'e that you understand the arrangements on which
COMMUNICATION WITH THE GROUND.
Communication with the grnund is maintained by VeJ')'
ights, and blinkers using .i\forse code. This· communica­tion
is necessary to ide ntify friendly aircraft, to avoid fire
from friendly artillery, and to call for ligh ts on landing
field .
Challenges and answers between friendly aircraft and
batteries are prepared for each day in t he mont h. The
challenge is in the form of a "letter of t he day," flashed
by the projector of the battery. The answer is the" colors
of the day," fired from a Very's pistol, or t he initial letters
of t he colors of the day are flashed by the b linker in the
bottom of t he fuse lage. The challenges and answers are
prepared for a month in advance and are pla: ed in the
hands of t he night-flying units and antiaircraft batteries
by the 20th of the preceding month. They are p repared
in the following form :
MONTH OF JUNE, 19- .
Day.
1. .. . ... ..... .... ............. . ...... . .. .
2 ..• • • • ......••.....•....... ··· · ·······•·
etc.
Letter
of the
day .
X
X
Colors of the day.
Red and white.
Green and red.
Permanent signal lights or lighthouses are maintained
in fr iendly tenitory for the gLtidance of ni ght aircraft at
intervals of abou t 20 miles.
the saarchlights and antiaircraft will work. As a rule,
enemy night bombers will fo llow some fbced altitude, say,
10,000 feet. Thi) arrangements will therefore be that t he
antiaircraft will not fo-e above 11,000. Keep at least a
thousand feet above the level fixed by t he antiaircraft.
As soon as you see an enemy caugh.t in the light, make for
him, intending to arrive just above the antiai rcraft fire.
When you are in a position to attack, signal by the prn­arranged
s;gnal, blinker, or Very's light, and the antiair­craft
fire will stop. )fake your attack as soon as possible.
COMBAT.
Your principles in com.bat must be worked out from
your own study and experience. Study t ypes of enemy
aircraft in regard to t he location of th eir fuel tanks. In
attacking large night bombers yom fire should always be
directed at the tanks. It is seldom possible to bring down
a large mac hine unless it can be set on firn .
When you ham discovered enemy aircraft yom best
tac.tics· will be to get close under h is tail, throttle down
to hi.s speed , then pulling close up undern eath him, fire a
long burst at shortest possible range for his tank. It will
be seen that surprise is yow.· greatest factor of success.
You should be able by careful maneuYer, keep ing away
fro :n the ligh t, to approach him without being seen.
Should you be disco-vered, get Ollt of the ligh t as quickly
as possible, and plan a nother attack from a blind spot Cir
some unex pected quarter. If the searchlights should lose
the enemy, try to follow him by any lights t here may be
on the machine or from the tracer from his gun. Do not
fire miscellaneously; your tracer only gives away your
position. You should never open fire until you have a
dead shot.
IV. THE TWO-SEATER PURSUIT PILOT'S MANUAL.
I N GENERAL-COOPERATION WITH 'l'HE GUNNER- OFFENSIVE TACTICS- DEFENSIVE TACTICS.
IN GENERAL.
The work of two-seater pursuit is almost identical with
that of single-seater p ursuit. Patrols and missions will
be conducted in the same manner and the same rules
regarding formation flying will apply. In combat and
attack it must always be borne in mind that the best
results will follow if the two-seater is handled and fought
in the same manner as a single-seater; that is, the front
guns are to be considered the principal weapon. The
rear guns will be used as a supplement to the front guns
wherever possible by firing over the top airplane with them.
While the airplane is being maneuvered i.nto a -position
the rear guns will attempt to bear on the target all the time
that it is within range. During all other times the rear
guns will be used for defense o~ in assisting other airplanes
with enemy they may be attacking and which are within
range.
As a two-seater pilot, therefore, you must make a careful
study of the tactics of the single-seater. You will take
the Single-seater Pursuit Pilot's Manual to guide your
conduct with the additions and modifications that follow.
COOPERATION WITH THE GUNNER.
your cockpits and your ability to see or touch each other.
Be sure that you keep them simple and have no two of
them so similar that they are likely to be confused.
OFFENSIVE TACTICS.
When you are about to begin to dive for an attack, be
sure that yom gunner has been wa~ned and is ready.
When you open fire on the target he will open fire with
you if the arrangement of the airplane makes it possible
for him to do so. Always start your dive so that it will put
you in the position to give him the best shot as you pull
off of the target. You must learn just how fast he is able
to swing his guns and keep a good aim and always tmn
away from the target at this speed. If you decide to choose
another enemy for the second attack, be sure that he under­stands
you. Maneuver to favor him with a good shot at
every oppOTtunity.
DEFENSIVE TACTICS.
When your formation is attack, remember that your best
defense is a tight, steady formation that will give the
gunner every chance to concentrate a steady, accurate
ti.re. If the attack comes from the front, where the gunner
can not fire, do not pull your nose up to bring your guns
Perfect cooperation between the pilot and gunner is the to bear on the attacker unless you are absolutely ·certain
prime requisite for success in two-seater fighting. You that you can bring down the attacker. Remember that
must do everything in your power tci perfect teamwork you must hold the formation at all costs. Try to maneuver
till you can work together as one man. Each of you must your airplane so that your gunner comes as near being able
know exactly what the other is capabl.e of and what he to shoot as possible, and yet, at the same time, keep your
will do in every situation. This requires that you work place in formation. This can be sometimes accomplished
out your own set of tactics together and coordinate them by momentarily putting one wing down and using suffi ­with
the tactics of other teams of the formation. There cient opposite rudder to hold off a tum.
are no set rules or short cuts to this end; it requires simply Be careful~ howe\·er, not to get in position from which
continuous hard work, practice, and study. you can not execute any movement that the flight com-
You should fly as often as you can in the gunner's mander may call for. . If you are being attacked from under
cockpit so that you may learn just what he can see and the tail , try to give the gunner a chance to put a short burst
what he can do from his position. Think of him as a set at the attacker by using opposite stick and rudder, at the
of eyes in the back of your head and trust him to keep you same time pulling the nose up slightly so that the tail of
informed as to what you should know from that quarter your airplane will swing over momentarily exposing the
and at the same tirne keep him informed of the things that attacker. Be very careful in executing this maneuver
he should know f~om your quarter. You can n ever be that you do not lose your place in the formation. Only
successful till each can come to trust the other to do his constant practice will enable you to work it successfully.
part of the job. The golden rule of all defensive tactics for pursuit air-
Do not depend on the telephones for communication of planes is " Keep the formation and keep cool." The
things which can be covered by a single set of signals. moment you lose your place when enemy are in a position
These signals will depend largely on the arrangement of to dive on you the odds are all against you.
(19)
V. MANUAL FOR THE TWO-SEATER PURSUIT GUNNER.
IN GENERAL-QUALIFICATIONS- GENERAL DUTIES-ASSIGNMENT TO PILOT- THE OPERATIONS RooM-ARMAMENT­FIRST
FLIGHT AT THE SERVICE SQUADRON- THE FIRST PATROL-SUBSEQUENT STUDY- SIGNALS- OFFENSIVE
COMBAT-DEFENSIVE C OMBAT- LIMITATIONS IN THE UsE OF TRACER AMMUNITION.
IN GENERAL.
The general tactics of the two-seater fighter requires that
the front guns be used as the principal weapon. The gun­ner's
fire-is, therefore, to be used as a supplement to the
fire of the pilot's guns and on targets the· pilot's guns am
not able to bear upon. The co=and of the airplane will
rest with the pilot and the Manual of the Pursuit Pilot
should be st11died carefully by the two-seater gunner.
QUALIFICATIONS.
The two-seater gunner must have all the qualifications
of the pursuit pilot except those bearing on the art of flying
itself. He must, like the two-seater pilot, be, above all,
a man who is capable of the closest cooperation with his
pilot and able to develop tejl,mwork to the maximum.
GENERAL DUTIES.
Your general duties upon reaching the squadron and
general conduct are the same as those of your pilot. These
are already covered in the Pursuit Pilot's Manual. You
must cooperate with your pilot in every possible way and
develop your teamwoi·k till each of you will know just
w~at may be expected of the other under all conditions.
ASSIGNMENT TO PILOT.
After reporting to the squadron, you will bP aBsigned to
the pilot with whom you will work. Thia is usually a good
time to meet some of the older pilots and gunners, who will
tell you in general the' type of work on the sector. They
will also give you good advice as regards maps and general
conditions. Do not forget that being n ew to the sector the
older pilots and gunners will probably be using smaller
scale maps than you will be able to use at first.
THE OPERATIONS ROOM.
You will need all the information that the pilot gets from
the operations room. (See Pilot's Manual. ) In addition,
you will need even better maps than he has and will need
to be even more fully informed on the chief landmarks of
the sector, for he will "expect you to be able to inform
him at any time of his location as he can not ha,ndle maps
in the pilot's cockpit so well as you can in the rear seat.
Large maps are difficult to handle in the air, but to save
the trouble of continuous map making, your map should
cover considerably more territory than the sector over
which you are ordered to fly. The use of two maps is rec­ommended.
One of them should cover only the sector
. over which you expect to fly. while the other should cover
adjacent territory and will be in the nature of an emer­gency
map, for use ii! case you get out of your sector during
a flight.
ARMAMENT .
After rece1vmg your assignment to a pilot, waste no
time in getting into touch with the armament officer.
He will assign you a pair of guns. If you take an in­terest
in these guns, he will also. Don 't spend a week in
lining up your sights, but see that they are accurate and
set for the proper speed and distance. Have a set of
magazines assigned to you and test them all on both your
guns. Calibrate your a=unition and shoot your guns
to see that they are well " worked in." Report any
trouble that niay arise with the guns to the armament
officer and have it remedied immediately .
FIRST FLIGHT AT THE SERVICE SQUADRON .
Before crossing the lines you will be given several
flights behind your own lines. During these flights take
an interest in your surroundings, ask questions of your
pilot, and learn as much as you can of the topography
and landmarks behind the sector over which you are to
work. The pilot will not object to questions; on the con­trary,
if you make several flights without asking questions
he will begin to fear that you are not learning the sector
and he will lack confid ence in you . He will conclude
that he must be the leader in everything and you will
have laid a poor foundation for that " teamwork " which
is so essential between you. You will in all probability
get your bearings mixed up at first ; don 't let this bother
you, but make up for it by asking questions and learning
the sector. If you are flying in formation , try to _pick up
the other airplanes before they join the formation and stand
ready to tell the pilot where each member of the forma­tion
is. Keep the pilot informed concerning the forma­tion.
If one airplane drops out, tell your pilot about it at
once. He must be kept informed of the strength of the
formation at all times. Remember, also, that a pilot is
always ready for any information, but remember that a
pilot doesn't want his gunner to attempt to tell him how
to fly.
THE FIRST PATROL.
Do not allow the excitement which you will feel over
your first patrol make you leave any of the necessary in­struments
or maps behind you. Be at your hangar in
plenty of time so that you will not keep the rest of the
flight waiting; patrols must be off on schedule time .
Examine your guns carefully. Place your magazines
properly. Test out your turelle, speaking' tubes, or sig­nals.
See that you are dressed properly and don't wait
to dress while you are taking off. In taking off keep a
close watch for airplanes landing in your airdrome. A
pilot can not see much behirn]. If you lose your bearings,
(20)
#
21
ask your pilot where you are. When on the way to the
lines keep on a sharp lookout for the enemy. This can
not be too strongly emphasized. Remember that other
gunners may not be able to keep a watch at all times.
Don't depend on them to do your observing for you. You
probably will not last long if you don't do it yourself.
If you think you see enemy airplanes, don't immediately
shout at your pilot. If a careful scrutiny leaves you unde­cided
as to what it i s, ask your pilot. When in danger
don't hesitate to inform v your pilot at once, but never
allow the enemy to get close quarters with you before you
give the pilot this information . When you return from
the first few patrols you will find that you have done
many unnecessary t,hings and are worn out.
SUBSEQUENT STUDY.
Until you are completely lost over the lines once you
will never realize the impoi-tance of continual and careful
study of your maps and the maps in the operations room.
You ,iill probably have a good excuse for such study, but
if you are ·fortunate enough not to get lost, such &tudies
will save you much trouble.
SIGNALS.
The flight with which you will work will have their own
code of signals for use between the different members of
the ~ormation. Learn these as quickly as you can. It
will be largely the pilot's duty to watch fo~ them while
in formation while you devote you.r entire attention to
things outside the formation, but at the same time if you
happen to see a signal do not hesi_tate to ask the pilot if he
has seen it, too. When you have cause to signal the for­mation
at the approach ·of enemy or anything of impor­tance
to the whole formation, be sure that you get acknowl­edgment
of your signal from the whole flight.
OFFENSIVE COMBAT.
Your conduct in offensive combat must follow abso­lutely
the tacticts and plans previously prepared by your
pilot: Before he starts a dive in an attack swipg your
guns forward and np so that you can fire over the top
airplane. If the type of your airplane will permit you to
fire dead ahead with him, do so, opening fiTe with him.
As he turns off or pulls out of the dive, hold as steady a
fire as possible on the target until it is out of range. As
soon as the fire's target is cint of your range, you will set
defensively until you can again assist on a target he is
attacking. While waiting thus to get into a position to
attack another target have a keen eye for an opportunity to·
assist other machines of your party with enemy they may
be attacking or which may be . about to escape. While
your pilot is maneuvering for a new position your airplane
will have greatly varying speeds and drifts for which you
must make allowance. Plan as far ahead as possible with
a view to placing your guns for a coming shot while you
have the chance as you will be unable to shift the turrelle
in a steep dive or bank.
Do not underestimate the ability of the enemy, for he
will have as many tricks as you have. Do not be misled
by the decoys who may attempt to draw your fire by firing
at you from long ranges while another airplane gets in posi­tion
to attac.k you. Every time your pilot changes posi­iion
glance at the places which were your blind spots.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT.
Ninety per cent of defensive tactics consist of two
words- keep cool. Nothing will break up an attack quicker
than a well-aimed, steady, concentrated fire from the gun­ners.
Disregard all machines not in a position to attack
for the moment and concentrate on the best shot. Do not
let long-range fire distract you from an enemy with whom
you have a good aim.
Plan and study with the other pilots and gunners till
you are able to develop a good system of cross fire and
guarding each other's tails; then stick, to it at all costs.
Nothing is a quicker indication of the poor or excited gun­ner
to an attacking pilot than one who is rapidly switching
from one target to another.
In case a retreat becomes necessary, conserve your am­munition.
Fire short bursts where they are sure to be
seen by the attackers. If yom fire falls short he may not
see it. If they are all around him he will not close in.
Use cross fire whenever a follower comes close enough to
make it effective. Remember that if you can concen­trate
on one airplane and bring it down the chances are that
the remainder will abandon the attack.
LIMITATIONS IN THE USE OF TRACER AMMUNITION .
Always bear in mind when doing long-range firing the
errors that are likely to follow from taking your aim from
the tracer. This has been taught you in your training,
but it is such a common source of error with inexperienced
gunners that it must be kept firmly in mind. If aim is
made with the tracer at distance greater than about 300
yards, where the tracer burns out, the eye will be deceived.
Thus when firing at a target at 500 yards the tracer will
bum out at about 300 and the bullets continue on their
trajectory. If air is made so that the point where the
tracer is last seen is on the target the bullets seem to be
hitting it. In reality they are· going wide of the target.
(See diagram 4.) Keep in mind.also the fall of the bullet
due to gravity which yoli can obtain for various ranges
from trajectory data.
22
L/rnifaf/oa or L/.5(3' OT
Tracer A.rnn?ua)r/oa
0, b, C, a' C?re lhe pos/f/ons or
fhe lu.d/e/ when plal"7e /S a"I
a'6'c'd'.
lhe tracer /S .spen/ al d and
o,,oporenfy hds fhe faryef.
0
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f
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